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This  book  was  presented  by 

MILTON  M.  LEONARD,  D.V.M. 

TO  THE 

VETERINARY  MEDICAL  LIBRARY 


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A   TEXT-BOOK 


HORSESHOEING 


Horseshoers  and  Veterinarians 


BY- 

A.  LUNGWITZ 

FORMER  MEMBER  OF  THE  ROYAL   SAXON  VETERINARY  COMMISSION,  LATE  INSTRUCTOR  IN  THE 

THEORY     AND     PRACTICE     OF    HORSESHOEING,    AND    DIRECTOR    OF    THE    SHOEING 

SCHOOL  OF  THE  ROYAL  VETERINARY  COLLEGE   IN  DRESDEN,  GERMANY 


JOHN  W.  ADAMS 

PROFESSOR  OF  SURGERY  AND   OBSTETRICS,  AND  LECTURER  ON  SHOEING   IN   THE 
VETERINARY  SCHOOL,  UNIVERSITY  OF  PENNSYLVANIA 


ELEVENTH  EDITION 
WITH  TWO  HUNDRED  AND  TWENTY-NINE  ILLUSTRATIONS 


PHILADELPHIA  &  LONDON 
J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT  COMPANY 


Copyright,  1897,  by  J.  B.  Lippincott  Company. 


Copyright,  1904,  by  J.  B.  Lippincott  Company. 


Copyright,  1913,  by  J.  B.  Lippincott  Company. 


PREFACE  TO  THE  FIRST  EDITION. 


The  inauguration  of  the  law  requiring  liorseshoers  to  be  ex- 
amined emphasizes  the  need  of  a  brief  and  easily  understood 
text-book  on  theoretical  and  practical  horseshoeing.  At  the  re- 
quest of  the  Royal  Veterinary  Commission,  in  charge  of  the 
Royal  Veterinary  School  in  Dresden,  and  many  interested  in- 
dividuals, I  have  attempted  to  meet  this  need  by  condensing 
within  the  narrowest  possible  limits  all  that  is  essential  to  the 
horseshoer  in  the  practice  of  his  profession.  The  subject-matter 
has  been  cast  into  a  logically  arranged  course  of  instruction ;  all 
that  is  superfluous  and  is  found  only  in  exhaustive  treatises  on 
shoeing  has  been  omitted. 

In  order  to  make  this  elementary  text-book  more  easy  to 
understand,  numerous  instructive  illustrations  have  been  incor- 
porated, which  were  taken  partly  from  "  Der  Fuss  des  Pferdes," 
by  Leisering  &  Hartmann,  fifth  edition,  Dresden,  1882 ;  partly 
from  the  journal  Der  Hufschmied,  and  partly  from  drawings 
made  specially  for  this  work. 

With  the  desire  that  this  little  book  may  find  many  friends 
and  supply  them  with  valuable  information,  it  is  herewith  given 
to  the  public. 

A.   LUNGWITZ. 

f,  September,  1884. 


TRANSLATOR'S  PREFACE. 


During  the  past  nine  years  in  which  it  has  been  my 
privilege  to  teach  horseshoeing  to  students  of  veterinary  medi- 
cine in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  and  to  classes  of  horse- 
shoers  under  the  auspices  of  the  Master  Horseshoers'  National 
Protective  Association  of  America,  I  have  been  forcibly  im- 
pressed vsdth  the  urgent  need  of  a  text-book  of  horseshoeing 
that  is  adapted  to  the  needs  of  beginners.  In  my  opinion,  such 
a  work  must  present  a  detailed  description  of  the  anatomy  and 
physiology  of  the  legs  below  the  middle  of  the  cannons,  and 
must  emphasize  in  unmistakable  terms  the  definite  relations 
which  exist  between  certain  well-defined  forms  of  the  hoof  and 
certain  well-defined  standing  positions  of  the  limb.  Only  on 
this  sure  foundation  can  a  thoroughly  scientific  system  of  shoe- 
ing be  based.  Furthermore,  the  teachings  must  be  eminently 
practical,  logically  arranged,  as  brief  as  is  consistent  with  clear- 
ness, easy  of  comprehension  by  persons  who  are  unfamiliar  with 
technical  language,  profusely  illustrated,  and  moderate  in  price. 
Through  the  kindness  of  my  respected  friend  and  former 
teacher.  Professor  A.  Lung-witz,  one  of  tlie  highest  authorities 
in  all  matters  pertaining  to  shoeing,  and  for  many  years  a 
teacher  in  and  the  Director  of  what  I  believe  to  be  the  best 
school  of  shoeing  in  the  world,  I  am  enabled  to  present  to*  the 
public  this  translation  of  his  text-book  for  students  of  shoeing. 
Written  to  meet  requirements  identical  with  those  existing  to- 
day in  the  United  States,  and  in  scope  and  arrangement  exactly 
suited  to  both  student  and  teacher,  I  am  confident  that  it  will 
meet  the  favor  that  it  merits. 

The  Translator. 
Philadelphia,  1904.  5 


PREFACE  TO  THE  ELEVENTH 
EDITION. 


Since  the  publication  in  1904  of  a  translation  of  the  tentli 
edition  of  Der  Lehrmeister  im  Hufbesclilag,  Prof.  Anton  Liing- 
witz,  the  author,  having  reached  the  age  of  retirement  has  with- 
drawn from  the  activities  of  the  Royal  Saxon  Shoeing  School, 
and  has  expressed  a  desire  that  the  translator  assume  entire 
responsibility  for  future  editions. 

To  note  the  progress  of  farrierv  during  the  past  ten  years 
many  chapters  have  been  revised,  necessitating  resetting,  and 
sixty-nine  new  illustrations  have  been  added  and  many  re- 
drawn. It  has  seemed  desirable  to  discuss  the  effect  of  weight 
in  the  shoe  in  altering  the  flight  of  the  foot ;  to  consider  rubber 
pads  so  widely  used  in  the  United  States,  and  to  direct  attention 
to  many  innovations  of  more  or  less  value,  that  hiave  appeared 
during  recent  years. 

In  preparing  this  edition  I  have  had  the  cordial  co-operation 
of  the  publishers,  to  whom  I  hereby  express  deepest  gratitude. 
I  wish  also  to  record  my  appreciation  for  the  many  suggestions 
and  other  aid  given  me  by  Mr.  Franz  Enge,  Chief  Farrier  of 
the  shoeing  shop  of  the  Veterinary  Hospital,  University  of 
Pennsylvania.  Joh:^  W.  Adams. 

University  of  Pennsylvania,  April.  1913. 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

Introduction 13 

The  Object  of  Shoeing 13 

PART    I. 

CHAPTER  I. 
the  gross  anatomy  of  the  horse. 

Bones  of  the  Head — Bones  of  the  Trunk 17 

The  Spinal  Column — Bones  of  the  Thorax 17-19 

Bones  of  the  Pelvis — Bones  of  the  Limbs 19-21 

Joints — Muscles — Tendon  Sheaths 21-24 

THE  FOOT. 

A.  The  Bones  of  the  Foot 24 

The    Cannon — The    Long    Pastern — The    Sesamoid    Bones — The 
Short  Pastern— The  Pedal  Bone — The  Navicular  Bone     .      .     24-28 

B.  The  Articulations  of  the  Foot 28 

I.  The  Fetlock-Joint 28 

The  Suspensory  Ligament 29 

The  Inferior  Sesamoid  Ligament 30 

II.  The  Coronary  Joint 31 

III.  The  Pedal  Articulation  (Coffin  Joint) 31 

C.  The  Locomotory  Organs  of  the  Foot 32 

The  Anterior  Extensor  Tendon  of  the  Phalanges — The  Perforatus 

Tendon— The  Perforans  Tendon 32-35 

Mucous  Bursae  and  Tendon  Sheaths 35 

Altering  the  Relative  Tension  of  the  Flexor  Tendons  and  Suspen- 
sory Ligament  of  the  Fetlock- Joint 36 

D.  The  Elastic  Parts  of  the  Foot 38 

The  Lateral  Cartilages— The  Plantar  Cushion 39,    40 

E.  The  Blood-Vessels  and  Nerves 41 

The  Arteries  of  the  Foot — The  Veins  of  the  Foot — The  Nerves  of 
the  Foot 41-44 

F.  The  Protective  Organs  of  the  Foot 44 

(a)  The  Hair-Skin 44 

1.  The  Epidermis 45 

2.  The  Dermis 45 

3.  The  Subcutaneous  Tissue 45 


10  CONTENTS. 

(b)  The  Hoof-Skin,  or  Pododerm 45,  46 

1.  The  Perioplic  Band 47 

2.  The  Coronary  Band 47 

3.  The  Fleshy  Wall 48 

The  Fleshy  Leaves  (Podophyllous  Tissue) .      .      .      .     48,  49 

4.  The  Velvety  Tissue  of  the  Sole 49 

5.  The  Velvety  Tissue  of  the  Frog 49 

(c)  The  Horn  Capsule  or  Hoof 50-53 

The  Wall 50-53 

The  Bars 51,52 

The  Layers  of  the  Wall:  1.  The  Periople.    2.  The  Middle 
or  Protective  Layer.    3.  The  Leafy  Layer  (Keraphyllous 

Layer) 53-55 

The  Sole 55,  56 

The  Frog 57,58 

The  Minute  Structure  of  the  Horn 58 

Hard  and  Soft  Horn .     59 

CHAPTER  IL 

THE  FOOT  IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  THE  ENTIRE  LIMB. 

A.  Standing  Positions  of  the  Limbs 62 

(a)  The  Positions  of  a  Fore-Limb  viewed  from  in  Front  and 

IN  Profile 62-67 

(b)  The  Positions  of  a  Hind  Limb  viewed  from  Behind  and  in 

Profile 67-69 

B.  Forms  of  Feet,  viewed  from  in  Front,  from  Behind,  and  in  Profile      69-72 

C.  Lines  of  Flight  of  Hoofs  in  Motion 72-75 

D.  Influence  of  Weight  upon  Lines,  of  Flight  of  Hoofs 75,  76 

E.  Forms  of  Hoofs 77 

The  Hoof  of  the  Regular  Position — The  Hoof  of  the  Base-Wide 
Position — The  Hoof  of  the  Base-Narrow  Position — Forms  of 
Hind  Hoofs — The  Wide  and  the  Narrow  Hoof — The  Character- 
istics of  Healthy  Hoofs 77-82 

F.  Growth  of  the  Hoof  and  Wear  of  the  Hoof  and  Shoe     ....     82-86 

G.  Physiological  Movements  of  the  Hoof 86-89 

PART    II. 

CHAPTER  IIL 

shoeing  healthy  hoofs. 

A.  Examination  of  a  Horse  Preliminary  to  Shoeing 90 

B.  Raising  and  holding  the  Feet  of  the  Horse  to  be  Shod 92 


CONTENTS.  11 

C.  Removing  the  Old  Shoes 97 

D.  P>repariiig  the  Hoof  for  the  Shoe 98 

E.  Preparing  the  Hoof  for  going  Barefoot 102 

F.  Making  Shoes 103 

The  Pedometer — Making  Front  Shoes — Making  Hind  Shoes — Gen- 
eral Characteristics  of  Shoes — A  Shoe  with  Heel-Calks — A  Shoe 
with  Toe-  and  Heel-Calks — Special  Characteristics  of  Shoes    103-116 

G.  Choosmg  the  Shoe 116 

H.  Shaping  and  Fitting  Shoes — General  Considerations 117 

Shaping  and  Fitting  Shoes — Special  Considerations 120 

Fitting  Shoes  to  Saddlers  and  Hunters 122 

Fitting  Shoes  to  Runners 123 

Fitting  Shoes  to  Trotters  and  Pacers 124 

Fitting  Shoes  to  Heavy  Draft  Horses 125 

I.   Nailing  the  Shoe— Horseshoe  Nails 128 

K.  Machine  Shoes 132 

L.  Rubber  Pads 135 


CHAPTER    IV. 

SHOEING  HORSES  THAT  FORGE  AND  INTERFERE. 

A.  Forging — Cross-firing 138,  140 

B.  Interfering 142 


CHAPTER  V. 

winter  shoeing. 

1.  Ice-Nails  (Frost-Nails) 146 

2.  Sharp  Toe-  and  Heel-Calks 146 

3.  Screw-Calks 148,  155 

4.  Peg  Heel-Calks 150 

5.  Peg  Toe-Calks 152 

6.  Removable  Heel-Calks,  that  do  not  require  Sharpening  .  .  154 


CHAPTER  VI. 
hoof  nurture. 

A.  Care  of  Unshod  Hoofs    . 157 

B.  Care  of  Shod  Hoofs 159 

Greasing  and  Soaking  the  Hoof 159 


12  CONTENTS. 

PART   III. 
CHAPTER  VII. 

GENERAL  REMARKS  CONCERNING  THE  SHOEING  OF  DEFECTIVE  HOOFS  AND  LAME 
HORSES. 

General  Remarks 161-165 

Classification  of  Diseases  of  the  Hoof 165 

C  H  A  P  T  E  R  V  I  I  I. 

inflammations  of  the  pododerm  (pododermatitis). 

1.  Nailing 166 

2.  Street-Nail 170 

3.  Calk-Wounds  of  the  Coronet 173 

4.  Corns 174 

5.  Inflammation  of  the  Heels 176 

6.  Laminitis  (Founder) 177 

7.  Keraphyllocele  (Horn  Tumor) 181 

CHAPTER  IX. 

defects  of  the  hoof. 

A.  Changes  of  Form 182 

1.  The  Flat  and  the  Full  Hoof 182 

2.  The  Upright  or  Stumpy  Hoof 184 

3.  The  Contracted  Hoof 185 

(a)  The  Contraction  of  Wide  Hoofs 189 

(6)   Contraction  of  the  Sole 189 

4.  The  Wry  Hoof 190 

5.  The  Crooked  Hoof 192 

6.  Ossification  of  the  Lateral  Cartilage  (Side-Bone)  .      .      .  194 

B.  Distiirbances  of  Continuity  of  Hoof 195 

1.  Cracks 195 

2.  Clefts 203 

3.  Loose  Wall 204 

4.  Hollow  Wall 205 

5.  Thrush  of  the  Frog 206 

CHAPTER  X. 

shoeing  mules,  asses,  and  oxen. 

1.  The  Shoeing  of  Mules  and  Asses 207 

2.  The  Shoeing  of  Oxen 207 


INTRODUCTION. 


Horseshoeing-  is  an  industry  whicli  requires,  in  equal 
degree,  knowledge  and  skill. 

The  word  "  horse'shoeing  "  embraces  various  acts,  especially 
preparing  the  iron  sole,  the  horseshoe ;  forming  it  and  fitting  it 
to  the  hoof,  whose  ground-surface  has  been  previously  dressed 
in  accordance  with  the  direction  of  the  limb,  and  fastening  it  to 
the  hoof  by  means  of  nails. 

Owing  to  the  complicated  structure  of  the  hoof,  success  in 
the  practice  of  horseshoeing  requires  a  knowledge  of  the  anatomy 
and  physiology  of  the  horse's  body  in  general  and  of  the  foot  in 
particular. 

The  object  of  shoeing  is, — 

1.  To  protect  the  hoof  from  excessive  wear,  and  thus  render 
the  horse  continuously  serviceable  upon  our  hard  roads. 

2.  To  prevent  slipping  and  falling  during  the  winter  season. 

3.  To  so  far  remove  the  disadvantages  of  faulty  positions  of 
the  limbs  that  horses  may  render  good  ser\ace,  and,  in  some 
cases, 

4.  To  cure  or  improve  diseased  or  defective  hoofs  or  feet. 
Horseshoeing,    though    apparently   simple,    involves   many 

difficulties,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  hoof  is  not  an  unchanging 
body,  but  varies  much  with  respect  to  form,  growth,  quality, 
and  elasticity.  Furthermore,  there  are  such  great  differences 
in  the  character  of  ground-surfaces  and  in  the  nature  of  horses' 
work  that  shoeing  which  is  not  performed  with  great  ability  and 
care  induces  disease  and  makes  horses  lame. 

13 


14  INTRODUCTION 

In  view  of  these  facts,  a  thorough  training  of  the  young 
horseshoer  in  the  principles  and  practice  of  his  trade  is  not  only 
greatly  to  he  desired,  but  is  really  essential  to  success  ;  unreason- 
ing work  does  as  much  harm  in  this  as  in  any  other  vocation. 
A  good  commoti-school  education  is  necessary  (more  will  do  no 
harm).  Further  requisites  are  a  healthy  body,  not  too  tall, 
liking  for  the  worlc,  aptness,  an  active,  reasoning  mind,  fear- 
lessness, dexterity,  a  good  eye  for  proportion,  and,  finally,  care- 
ful selection  of  a  master-instructor.  Theoretically  educated, 
practically  experienced  and  approved  masters,  in  whose  shops 
all  kinds  of  horses  are  shod,  are  to  be  preferred. 

During  his  term  of  apprenticeship  the  young  apprentice 
should  learn  to  make  drawings  of  horseshoes,  of  tools  of  the 
trade,  and  of  hoofs  of  various  forms,  and  should  also  make  one 
or  more  model  shoes  as  an  indication  of  his  ahility.  After  com- 
pleting his  time  he  should  seek  a  position  in  a  first-class  shop, 
either  at  home  or  abroad.  A  visit  to  foreign  lands  will  mden 
one's  mental  horizon  and  make  him  a  broader,  abler  man  in 
every  respect.  Later,  opportunity  "vvill  be  given  to  some  (in 
Germany)  to  join  the  cavalry,  and  thus  acquire  a  good  educa- 
tion in  shoeing  under  the  patronage  of  the  government.  Finally, 
a  course  of  instruction  in  a  school  of  horseshoeing  will  convert 
an  already  practical  and  intelligent  horseshoer  into  a  thoughtful, 
capable,  expert  workman. 

The  scope  of  horseshoeing  is  by  no  means  so  narrow  and 
insignificant  as  it  may  appear,  and  since  a  knowledge  of  the 
anatomy  and  physiology  of  the  horse's  body  in  general,  and  of 
the  foot  in  particular,  is  necessary,  it  is  evident  that  the  schools 
of  horseshoeing  in  which  one  can  get  the  best  instruction  are 
those  in  which  there  is  not  only  a  regularly  graded  course  of 


INTRODUCTION  15 

instruction,  with  demonstrations  upon  dissected  material  and 
upon  living  horses,  but  also  an  abundance  of  daily  work  at  the 
forge  and  on  the  floor  in  the  shoeing  of  horses.  A  course  of 
four  to  six  weeks  is  not  sufficient. 

Furthermore,  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  schools  of 
horseshoeing  are  not  for  the  purpose  of  instructing  young  men 
in  all  matters  which  pertain  to  the  trade,  but  only  in  the  making 
of  shoes,  the  critical  examination  and  management  of  hoofs,  and 
the  rational  and  skilful  performance  of  shoeing.  For  this  reason 
it  is  not  advisable  for  young  men  to  attend  a  school  of  horse- 
shoeing until  they  have  at  least  completed  their  apprenticeship. 


HORSESHOEING 


PART  I. 


CHAPTER   I. 
THE  GROSS  ANATOMY  OF  THE  HORSE. 

The  supporting  structure  of  the  horse's  body  is  the  bony 
framework  or  skeleton  (Fig.  1,  page  18).  We  distinguish  in 
the  skeleton  the  bones  of  the  head,  trunk,  and  limbs. 

The  bones  of  the  head  are  numerous  and,  excepting  the 
lower  jaw,  are  solidly  united  with  one  another.  In  general,  we 
distinguish  in  the  head  only  the  upper  and  lower  jaws  (1  andl'). 
Both  form  various  cavities ;  for  example,  the  cranial  cavity,  in 
which  the  brain  lies,  the  orbital  cavities  (eye-sockets),  the  nasal 
passages,  and  the  mouth.   Besides,  the  teeth  are  set  in  the  jaws. 

The  trunk  comprises  the  bones  of  the  spinal  column,  thorax, 
and  pelvis. 

The  spinal  or  vertebral  column  (2  to  6),  which  bears  the 
head  at  its  anterior  end,  is  the  chief  support  of  the  entire 
skeleton.  It  consists  of  from  fifty-two  to  fifty-four  single  and 
irregular  bones  called  vertebrae,  placed  in  the  upper  part  of  the 
median  vertical  plane  of  the  body.  Each  vertebra,  vnth  the  ex- 
ception of  those  of  the  tail  (coccygeal  or  caudal  vertebrae),  is 
traversed  by  a  large  opening  called  the  vertebral  foramen.  The 
vertebrae  are  placed  end  to  end  in  a  row,  and  through  them  runs 
a  continuous  large  canal  called  the  vertebral  or  spinal  canal,  in 
which  lies  the  spinal  cord.  The  horse  has  seven  cervical, 
eighteen  dorsal,  six  lumbar,  five  sacral,  and  sixteen  to  eighteen 
2  17 


18 


HORSESHOEING. 


caudal  vertebrae.     The  sacral  vertebrae  are  grown  together  to 
form  one  piece  called  the  sacrum. 


Fig.  1. 


Skeleton  of  the  Horse. — 1,  bones  of  the  head;  1',  lower  jaw;  2,  cervical  vertebrae;  3, 
dorsal  vertebrae;  4,  lumbar  vertebrae;  5,  sacral  vertebrae  (sacrum);  6,  coccygeal  vertebrae;  7, 
ribs;  8,  sternum  (breast-bone);  9,  pelvis;  9',  ilium;  9",  ischium;  10,  scapula  (shoulder-blade) ; 
11,  humerus;  12,  radius;  13,  ulna;  14,  carpus  (knee) ;  15,  large  metacarpal  bone  (cannon);  16, 
rudimentary  metarcarpal  bones  (splint-bones);  17,  os  suffraginis  (long  pastern);  18,  os  coro- 
nae  (short  pastern) ;  19,  os  pedis  (hoof-bone);  20,  sesamoid  bones;  21,  femur;  22,  patella 
(knee-pan,  stifle) ;  23,  tibia;  24,  fibula;  25,  tarsus,  or  hock;  26,  large  metatarsal  bone  (can- 
non) ;  27,  rudimentary  metatarsals  (splint  bones) ;  28,  os  suffraginis  (long  pastern) ;  29,  os 
coronae  (short  pastern) ;  30,  os  pedis  (hoof-bone,  "coflan  bone");  31,  sesamoid  bones. 

The  thorax  is  formed  by  the  ribs  and  the  breast-bone  or 
sternum.  The  horse  has  eighteen  ribs  on  each  side  (7),  and  all 
articulate  with  the  dorsal  vertebrae.  The  first  eight  pairs  unite 
by  their  lower  ends  directly  to  the  sternum  or  breast-bone,  and 


HORSESHOEING.  19 

are  therefore  called  true  lihs,  while  the  last  ten  pairs  are  only 
indirectly  attached  to  the  'sternum,  and  are  consequently  called 
false  libs.  The  sternum.  (8)  lies  between  the  forelegs,  and  helps 
to  form  the  floor  of  the  chest  cavity.  The  space  enclosed  by  the 
bones  of  the  thorax  is  called  the  thoracic,  pulmonary,  or  chest 
cavity,  and  contains  the  heart  and  lungs.  The  bones  of  the  pelvis 
form  a  complete  circle  or  girdle.  The  upper  part,  called  the 
ilium  (9'),  articulates  on  its  inner  'side  with  the  sacrum  (5), 
while  its  outer  side  is  prolonged  to  form  a  prominent  angle, 
which  is  the  support  of  the  hip,  and  is  called  the  "  point  of  the 
hip."  The  posterior  part  of  the  pelvis  is  called  the  ischium 
(9''),  and  that  part  lying  between  the  ilium  and  the  ischium  and 
forming  part  of  the  floor  of  the  pelvis  is  called  the  pubis. 

The  space  between  the  thorax  and  the  pelvis,  bounded  above 
by  the  lumbar  vertebrae  and  shut  in  below  and  on  the  sides  by 
the  skin  and  muscular  walls  of  the  belly  (abdomen),  is  called 
the  abdominal  cavity.  This  cavity  opens  directly  into  the  pel- 
vic cavity,  and  contains  the  stomach,  intestines,  liver,  spleen, 
pancreas,  kidneys,  and  a  part  of  the  generative  organ's.  The 
thoracic  and  abdominal  cavities  are  separated  by  a  muscular 
partition,  the  diaphragm. 

The  bones  of  the  limbs  may  be  likened  to  columns,  upon 
which  the  body  rests ;  they  articulate  with  one  another  at  various 
angles,  are  tubular  in  structure,  and  strong. 

The  bones  of  the  fore-limbs  do  not  articulate  directly  with 
the  hones  of  the  trunh,  but  are  attached  to  the  body  by  mean's  of 
the  skin  and  muscles.  From  above  to  below  we  distinguish  the 
following  bones : 

1.  The  scapula,  or  shoulder-blade  (10),  a  flat,  triangular 
bone,  prolonged  at  its  upper  border  by  a  flat,  very  elastic  car- 
tilage, called  the  scapular  cartilage.  At  its  lower  end  the 
scapula  articulates  with — 

2.  The  upper  end  of  the  humerus  (11),  forming  the 
shoulder-joint  fiscapulo-humeral  articulation).  The  humerus 
articulates  at  its  lower  end  with — 


20  HORSESHOEING. 

3.  The  radius  (12)  and  the  ulna  (13),  to  form  the  elbow 
joint.  These  two  bones  are  the  basis  of  the  forearm.  The 
ulna,  smaller  and  weaker  than  the  radius,  lies  behind  and 
projects  above  it  to  form  the  point  of  the  elbow.  The  lower 
end  of  the  radius  articulates  with — 

4.  The  carpus,  or  knee  (14),  which  comprises  seven  small, 
cubical  bones  disposed  in  two  horizontal  rows,  one  above  the 
other.  The  upper  row  comprises  four  bones  and  the  lower  row 
three.     The  lower  row  rests  upon^ — 

5.  The  large  metacarpal  or  cannon  hone,  and  the  two  rudi- 
mentary metacarpal  or  splint-hones.  The  lower  end  of  the 
radius,  the  upper  ends  of  the  metacarpal  bones,  and  the  small 
carpal  bones  together  form  the  carpal  or  knee-joint  (wrist  of 
man).  Of  the  metacarpals,  the  middle  on©  is  the  largest, 
longest,  strongest,  and  most  important,  and  is  called  the  large 
metacarpal,  cannon,  or  shin-hone  (15).  It  articulates  at  its 
lower  end  with  the  o's  suffraginis,  or  long  pastern  (17),  and  with 
the  two  small  sesamoid  bones  (20).  On  each  side  of  the  upper 
part  of  its  posterior  surface  lie  the  two  long,  slender  splint- 
bones  (16).  The  inner  splint-bone  is  sometimes  affected  with 
bony  thickenings  (exostoses)  called  "  splints." 

6.  The  bones  of  the  phalanges  (all  bones  below  the  cannon) 
will  be  fully  described  in  another  place. 

The  bones  of  the  hind  limbs  articulate  directly  with  the 
pelvis  at  the  hip-joint.  They  are  stronger  than  the  bones  of 
the  anterior  limbs.  We  distinguish  the  following  bones  in  the 
hind  legs : 

1.  The  highest  bone  in  the  hind  limb  is  the  femur  (21).  It 
is  the  strongest  bone  in  the  entire  body.  It  lies  in  an  oblique 
direction  downward  and  forward,  and  at  its  lower  end  articu- 
lates with — 

2.  The  patella  (22),  the  tibia  (23),  and  the  fibula  (24),  to 
form  the  stifle-joint  (knee  of  man).  The  patella  plays  over  the 
anterior  surface  of  the  lower  end  of  the  femur.  The  fibula  is 
small,  and  lies  against  the  upper  and  outer  side  of  the  tibia. 
The  latter  at  its  lower  end  articulates  with — 


HORSESHOEING.  21 

3.  The  bones  of  the  tarsus,  or  lioch  (25),  which  are  six 
small,  irregular  bones  disposed  in  three  rows,  one  above  another. 
The  OS  calcis,  or  heel-hone,  and  tlie  astragalus  are  in  the  upper- 
most row,  and  are  the  most  important.  The  former  projects 
above  the  true  hock-joint  from  behind,  to  form  a  long  lever,  the 
upper  end  of  which  is  called  the  "  point  of  the  hock,"  and  the 
latter  articulates  with  the  tibia.  The  tarsal  (hock)  bones 
articulate  below  with — 

4.  The  metatarsal  hones  (26  and  27),  which  are  longer, 
and  the  cannon  narrower  from  'side  to  side,  than  the  correspond- 
ing metacarpal  bones,  but  are  otherwise  similar. 

5.  The  phalanges  of  a  hind  limb  (28  to  31)  are  also  nar- 
rower than  those  of  a  fore-limb,  but  are  nearly  alike  in  other 
respects. 

All  the  horse's  bones  present  small,  but  more  or  less  distinct 
openings  (nutrient  foramina)  for  the  passage  of  blood-vessels 
and  nerves.  Many  bones  possess  roughened  elevations  and  de- 
pressions, to  which  ligaments,  tendons,  or  muscles  are  attached. 
With  the  exception  of  the  os  pedis,  all  bones  are  enveloped  in  a 
sort  of  "  bone-skin  "  called  periosteum.  The  bones  unite  among 
themselves  to  form  either  movable  or  immovable  unions.  A 
movable  union  between  two  or  more  bones  is  termed  a  "  joint," 
or  articulation.  The  articulating  ends  of  the  bones,  presenting 
on  one  side  a  convex  surface  (head  or  condyle)  and  on  the  other 
a  corresponding  concave  surface  (glenoid  or  cotyloid  cavity), 
are  covered  mth  elastic  articular  cartilage.  The  bones  are  bound 
together  by  means  of  ligaments,  which  are  tough,  fibrous,  cord- 
like, or  sheet-like  structures.  Ligaments  are  either  (1)  capsular 
or  (2)  funicular  (cord-like).  Every  articulation  in  the  limbs 
possesses  a  capsular  ligament,  and  all,  except  the  shoulder-joint, 
have  several  funicular  (cord-like)  ligaments.  The  capsular  liga- 
ments are  lined  upon  their  inner  face  with  a  delicate  membrane 
synovial  membrane)  which  secretes  the  synovia,  or  "  joint 
water,"  whose  function  is  to  lubricate  the  joint  and  prevent  fric- 
tion; they  enclose  the  joint  in  a  sort  of  air-tight  cuflF  or  sack. 
The  funicular  ligaments  are  very  strong  and  often  large,  and 


22  HORSESHOEING. 

are  tlie  chief  means  of  union  of  the  bones.  The  immovable 
articulations  are  tenned  sutures;  they  are  found  principally  in 
the  head.  The  mixed  joints  are  found  between  the  bodies  of  the 
vertebrae,  each  two  of  which  are  united  by  an  elastic  fibro-carti- 
lage  which,  in  the  form  of  a  pad,  lies  between  them,  and  by  its 
elasticity  allows  of  very  slight  movement,  though  the  spinal 
column  as  a  whole  can  execute  manifold  and  wide  movements, 
as  shown  by  the  neck  and  tail. 

Joints  which  permit  motion  in  all  directions  are  known  as 
free  joints;  such  are  the  shoulder-  and  hip-joints  (ball-and- 
socket  joints).  Those  which  admit  of  motion  in  but  two 
directions  (flexion  and  extension),  and  often  to  a  very  limited 
extent,  are  called  hinge-joints, — e.g.,  the  elbow,  hock,  and  fet- 
lock. The  joints  between  the  long  and  short  pasterns  and  be- 
tween the  latter  and  the  pedal  bone  are  imperfect  hinge- joints, 
because  they  allow  of  some  other  movements  besides  flexion  and 
extension.  The  articulation  between  the  first  and  second  cervical 
vertebra  (atlas  and  axis)  is  called  a  pivot-joint. 

The  skeleton  represents  a  framework  which  closely  ap- 
proaches the  external  form  of  the  body,  and  by  reason  of  its 
hardness  and  stiffness  furnishes  a  firm  foundation  for  all  other 
parts  of  the  body.  By  reason  of  the  great  variety  of  position 
and  direction  of  the  bones,  and  of  the  fact  that  changes  of  posi- 
tion of  each  single  part  of  this  complicated  system  of  levers 
may  result  in  the  greatest  variety  of  bodily  movements,  we  can 
readily  understand  how  the  horse  is  enabled  to  move  from  place 
to  place.  Of  course,  the  bones  have  no  power  of  themselves  to 
move,  but  this  power  is  possessed  by  other  organs  that  are 
attached  to  the  bones.  These  organs  are  the  muscles,  and, 
owing  to  their  ability  to  contract  and  shorten  themselves,  and 
afterwards  to  relax  and  allow  themselves  to  be  stretched  out, 
they  furnish  the  motive  power  that  is  communicated  to  and 
moves  the  bones. 

The  muscles  of  the  body  massed  together  are  the  red  flesh 
which  we  observe  in  every  slaughtered  animal.     They  are  not. 


HORSESHOEING. 


23 


however,  so  shapeless  as  thej  appear  while  in  this  condition; 
on  the  contrary,   they  present  well-ai-ranged  muscular  layers 


Fig.  2. 


Outer  Muscles  of  the  Horse. — 1,  cervical  trapezius;  2,  dorsal  trapezius;  3,  mastoido- 
humeralis;  4,  great  dorsal  muscle;  5,  long  abductor  of  tiie  arm;  6,  long  extensor  of  the  fore- 
arm; 7,  large  extensor  of  the  forearm;  8,  short  extensor  of  the  forearm;  9,  sterno-trochinus 
(deep  pectoral);  10,  sterno-aponeuroticus;  11,  great  serratus;  12,  common  extensor  of  the 
metacarpus;  13,  common  extensor  of  the  toe  (anterior  extensor);  14,  common  extensor  of 
the  long  pastern  (lateral  extensor) ;  15,  oblique  extensor  of  the  metacarpus;  16 ,  external  flexor 
of  the  metacarpus;  17,  internal  flexor  of  the  metacarpus;  18,  oblique  flexor  of  the  metacarpus; 
19,  fascia  lata;  20,  superficial  gluteus  (anterior  portion);  21,  middle  gluteus;  22,  superficial 
gluteus  (posterior  portion) ;  23  and  24,  femoral  biceps;  25,  semitendinosus;  26,  semimembra- 
nosus; 27,  anterior  extensor  of  the  toe;  28,  lateral  extensor  of  the  toe;  29,  perforans  muscle 
(deep  flexor  of  toe);  30,  oblique  flexor  of  the  phalanges;  31,  perforatus  tendon  (superficial 
flexor  of  phalanges);  32,  Achillea  tendon  (ham-string). 


of  variable  size,  thickness,  length,  and  position.     (See  Fig.  2.) 
The  muscles  olothe  the  skeleton  externally,  give  the  body  its 


24  HORSESHOEING. 

peculiar  form,  and,  by  their  special  power  of  contraction, 
change  the  relative  positions  of  the  bones  and  thus  make  it  pos- 
sible for  the  animal  to  move.  For  this  reason,  the  muscles  are 
called  the  active,  and  the  bones  the  passive,  organs  of  motion. 
By  carefully  examining  a  muscle  it  will  be  found  to  consist  of 
actual,  minute,  reddish,  muscular  fibres.  As  a  rule,  muscles 
terminate  in  more  or  less  strong,  glistening,  fibrous  cords  called 
tendons,  or  fibrous  sheets  tenned  aponeuroses,  by  which  they 
are  attached  to  the  bones.  In  the  limbs  are  muscles  terminating 
in  very  long  tendons,  which  act  as  draw-lines  upon  the  distant 
bones  of  the  foot  (long  and  short  pasterns  and  pedal  bone)  and 
set  them  in  motion.  Such  long  tendons  are  enclosed  in  sheaths 
of  thin,  membranous  tissue,  known  as  tendon  sheaths.  The 
inner  surface  of  such  a  sheath  is  in  direct  contact  with  the 
surface  of  the  tendon,  and  secretes  a  thin  slippery  fluid 
(synovia)  which  lubricates  the  tendon  and  facilitates  its  gliding 
■udthin  the  sheath. 

As  long  as  the  bones,  articulations,  muscles,  and  tendons  of 
the  limbs  remain  healthy,  just  so  long  will  the  legs  maintain 
their  natural  direction  and  position.  Frequent!}^,  however, 
this  normal  condition  of  the  limbs  is  gradually  altered  by  dis- 
ease of  the  bones,  joints,  and  tendons,  and  defects  in  the  form 
and  action  of  the  lower  part®  of  the  limbs  arise  that  often 
require  attention  in  shoeing. 

THE  FOOT. 
A.  The  Bones  of  the  Foot. 

Since  the  horse  is  useful  to  man  only  by  reason  of  his  move- 
ments, his  foot  deserves  the  most  careful  attention.  The  horse- 
shoer  should  be  familiar  with  all  its  parts.  Fig.  3  shows  the 
osseous  framework  of  the  foot,  consisting  of  the  lower  end  of  the 
cannon  bone  (A),  the  long  pastern  (5),  the  two  sesamoid  bones 
(C),  the  short  pastern  (D),  and  the  pedal  bone  (E).  The  lower 
end  of  the  cannon,  or  large  metacarpal  bone  (A)  exhibits  two 
convex  articular  surfaces  (condyles)  separated  by  a  median 
ridge  running  from  before  to  behind,  and  all  covered  by  articu- 


HORSESHOEING. 


25 


lar  cartilage.     On  both  tlie  external  and  the  internal  aspects  of 
the  lower  end  of  the  cannon  are  small  uneven  depressions  in 
which  ligaments  take 
their  attachment.  ^^^-  ^' 

The  condyles  of 
the  cannon  articulate 
with  the  OS  suffra- 
ginis  (long  pastern) 
and  the  two  sesa,- 
moids  (Figs.  3,  C, 
and  4:,  B)  in  such  a 
manner  that  in.  the 
forefeet  the  cannon 
m.akes  an  angle  with  q/ 
the  long  pastern  of 
from  one  hundred 
and  thirty-five  to  one 
hundred  and  forty 
degrees,  and  in  the 
hind  feet  of  from  one 
hundred  and  forty  to 
one  hundred  and 
forty-five  degi-ees. 

The  long  pastern 
(first  phalanx)  (Fig. 
4,  A)  is  about  one^third  the  length  of  the  cannon ;  its  upper  and 
thicker  end  presents  two  condyloid  cavities  (a)  (glenoid  cavities), 
separated  by  a  median  groove,  which  exactly  fit  the  condyles 
and  ridge  at  the  lower  end  of  the  cannon.  The  lower  end  of 
the  long  pastern  is  smaller  than  the  upper,  and  is  provided  with 
two  condyles,  between  which  is  a  shallow  groove  (e).  The  an- 
terior face  of  the  bone  is  smooth,  rounded  from  'side  to  side, 
and  blends  into  the  lateral  borders.  The  posterior  face  is  flatter, 
and  shows  a  clearly  marked  triangle  to  which  ligaments  attach. 

The  two  sesamoid  bones  (Fig.  4,  B)  are  small,  and  some- 


26 


HORSESHOEING. 


what  pyramidal  in  shape,  and,  lying  against  the  posterior  part 

of  the  condyles  of  the  cannon 
Fig.  4.  bone,  increase  the  articular  sur- 

faces at  the  upper  end  of  the 
long  pastern. 

The  short  pastern  (second 
phalanx)  (Figs.  5  and  6)  lies 
under  the  first  phalanx  and 
above  the  os  pedis;  it  is  some- 
what cubical  in  shape.  Its 
upper  articular  surface  (Fig.  5, 
a)  presents  two  glenoid  cavities 
to  correspond  with  the  condyles 
of  tlie  first  phalanx.    The  lower 

Os  suffraginis  with  both  sesamoid  bones  .  -  /-n-         ^^      ^\ 

in  position,  as  in  Fig.  3.  A,  os  suf=fraginis;  B,  artlCUiar  SUrfaCO  (-E  Ig.  0,d)  TO- 
sesamoid   bones;   a,   upper  joint-surface   of  1,1  j.U        1  J        J?     j-X, 

long  pastern;  b,  joint-surface  of  sesamoid  SemblcS  the  ioWCr  CUd  0±  the 
bones;  c,  roughened  surface  at  upper  end;  £j.g^  phalaUX.  The  Upper  pOStC- 
d,  roughened  surface  at  lower  end,  both  for  i  l  if        r 

attachment  of  ligaments;  e,  lower  joint  sur-     j-Jor  bordor  of  tllis  boUC  is  promi- 
nent and  prolonged  transversely 
a  supporting  ledge  for  the  first  phalanx, 
as  a  point  of  attachment 
Fig.  6. 


face. 


(Fig.  6,  a),  to  serve 


Fig.  5. 


Short  pastern  (os  coronse) 
viewed  in  front  and  in  pro- 
file: a,  upper  joint-surface; 
b,  anterior  surface;  c,  lat- 
eral surface;  d,  lower  joint- 
surface. 


for  the  perforatus  tendon, 
and  as  a  gliding  surface 
for  the  perforans  tendon. 
The  lowest  bone  of 
the  limb  is  the  third 
phalanx  or  os  pedis  ( Fig. 
7).  In  form  it  is  similar 
to  the  hoof.  The  anterior 
or    wall-surface     (a)     is 


Short  pastern  seen 
from  behind:  a,  smooth 
surface      over      which  i       ti 

the    perforans    tendon    rOUgh,  llKC  pumice  StOUB. 

surfrc'e.  '  ""^^"^  ^°''^*'  Above  and  in  front  is  the 


pyramidal  eminence  to 
which  the  tendon  of  the  anterior  extensor  of  the  phalanges 
attaches.      Behind,    the   bone   extends  backward   to  form   the 


HORSESHOEING. 


27 


inner  and  outer  branches  {c,  c)  or  wings  of  the  os  pedis.  The 
upper,  articular  surface  (6)  slopes  backward  and  downward. 
The  lower,  solar  or  plantar  surface  (Fig.  8,  a)  is  slightly  con- 
cave, and  presents  posteriorly  a  half-moon-shaped  excavation, 
with  a  roughened  border  called  the  semilunar  crest  (c),  to  which 
the  perforans  tendon  attaches;  just  above  this  crest  are  two 
small  holes  (e)  known. a^  the  plantar  foramina,  through  which 
the  plantar  arteries  pass  into  the  bone.  The  surfaces  of  wall 
and  sole  come  together  in  a  sharp  edge,  which  is  circular  in  its 


Fig.  7. 


Fig.  8. 


Oa  pedis  seen  in  profile  and  in  front;  a, 
anterior  face  with  pyramidal  eminence 
above;  b,  joint-surface;  c,  wings  or  branches 
of  hoof-bone;  d,  notch  which,  by  the  attach- 
ment of  the  lateral  cartilage,  is  converted 
into  a  foramen  and  leads  to  e,  the  preplan- 
tar  fissure. 


Lower  surface  of  hoof-bone;  o,  anterior 
portion  covered  by  the  velvety  tissue  of  the 
sole;  6,  wing  of  the  os  pedis;  c,  semilunar 
crest,  to  which  the  perforans  tendon  at- 
taches; d,  plantar  fissure  leading  to  e,  plan- 
tar foramen. 


course.  It  is  easy  to  tell  whether  a  pedal  bone  is  from  a  fore 
or  a  hind  limb;  the  os  pedis  of  a  hind  leg  has  a  steeper  and 
more  pointed  toe,  and  a  more  strongly  concaved  solar  surface 
than  the  same  bone  of  a  foreleg.  Not  only  is  the  outline  of  the 
sharp  inferior  border  of  the  os  pedis  of  a  front  foot  more  rounded 
at  the  toe,  but  when  placed  on  a  flat  surface  the  toe  does  not 
touch  by  reason  of  being  turned  slightly  upward,  much  as  a 
shoe  designed  to  give  a  "  rolling  motion."  The  os  pedis  of  a 
hind  foot  is  narrower  from  side  to  side  (pointed),  and  does  not 
turn  up  at  the  toe. 

The  right  and  left  hoof-bones  are  also,  as  a  rule,  easily  dis- 


28  HORSESHOEING. 

tinguished  by  variations  in  the  surfaces  of  wall  and  sole.  The 
shape  of  the  os  pedis  corresponds  to  the  form  of  the  horny  box 
or  hoof,  and  therefore  a  knowledge  of  this  bone  is  absolutely 
necessary. 

The  navicular  bone  (os  naviculare,  nut-bone,  Figs.  9  and  10) 
is  an  accessory  or  sesamoid  bone  to  the  os  pedis.     It  is  a  small 

bone,     transversely     elongated 
Fig.  9.  Fig.  10.  ^^^  situated  behind  and  below 

the  OS  pedis  and  between  the 
wings  of  tlie  latter.  It  adds  to 
the  articular  surface  of  the 
pedal  joint.     Its  under  surface 

Fig.  9  representa  the  upper  surface  of  the     •  ,  i  i         ,  t  j  • 

navicular  bone;  Fig.  10  the  lower  surface  of     IS   SmOOth,   and  actS  aS   a  gliding 

^^^nr^^Z^Z^'^f'oe^''''^'-  surfacefortheperforanstendon, 

which  is  quite  wide  at  this  point. 
The  long  axes  of  the  three  phalanges  (cf&  suffraginis,  os  co- 
ronge,  and  os  pedis)  should  unite  to  form  a  straight  line,  when 
viewed  either  from  in  front  or  from  one  side ;  that  is,  the  direc- 
tion of  each  of  these  three  bones  should  be  the  same  as  the  com- 
mon direction  of  the  three  considered  as  a  whole. 

In  young  colts  both  the  long  and  short  pasterns  are  in  three  parts 
and  the  pedal  bone  in  two  parts,  all  of  which  unite  later  in  life  to  form 
their  respective  single  bones. 

In  mules  and  asses  the  os  pedis  is  comparatively  small  and  narrow. 
In  cattle  all  three  phalanges  are  double,  and  split  hoofs  cover  the  divided 
OS  pedis. 

B.  The  Articulations  of  the  Foot. 

There  are  three  articulations  in  the  foot — namely,  the  fet- 
lock, coronary,  and  pedal  joints.  All  are  hinge-joints,  the  fet- 
lock being  a  perfect  hinge-joint,  and  the  other  two  imperfect 
hinge-joints.  Each  has  a  capsular  ligament,  and  also  several 
funicular  or  cord-like  ligaments  which  are  placed  at  the  sides  of 
(lateral  ligaments),  or  behind  (on  the  side  of  flexion)  the  joints. 

I.  The  fetlock  or  metacarpo-phalangeal  articulation  is 
formed  by  the  condyles  at  the  lower  end  of  the  cannon  bone  and 
the  glenoid  cavities  formed  by  the  union  of  the  articular  sur- 


HORSESHOEING. 


29 


faces  of  the  sesamoids  and  the  upper  end  of  the  first  phalanx. 
The  following  ligaments  are  about  this  joint : 

1.  Two  lateral  ligor 

merits,  an  external  and  Fig.  11. 

an  internal ( Fig.  11,  a). 

2.  Two  lateral  sesa- 
moid ligaments  (f). 

3.  An  intersesamoid 
ligament  (Fig.  12,  &),  a 
thick,  fibrous  mass, 
binding  the  sesamoid 
bones  almost  immovably 
together,  extending 
above  them  and  present- 
ing on  its  posterior  face 
a  smooth  groove,  i  n 
which  glide  the  flexor 
tendons  o  f  t  h  e  phal- 
anges (perforans  and 
perforatus). 

4.  The  suspensory 
ligament  of  the  fetlock 
(Figs.  11,  c,  12,  c,  and 
13,  c,  pages  29  and  30). 
This  may  also  be  called 
the  superior  sesamoid 
ligament.     It  is  a  long 

and  very  powerful  brace,  originating  on  the  lower  row  of  carpal 
bones  (bones  of  the  hock  in  the  hind  leg)  and  on  the  upper  end 
of  the  cannon  between  the  heads  of  the  two  splint-bones,  and 
dividing  at  the  lower  third  of  the  cannon  into  two  branches  (<?), 
which  are  attached  one  to  each  sesamoid  bone.  Below  these 
bones  these  two  branches  are  prolonged  obliquely  downward  and 
foru-ard  on  opposite  sides  of  the  long  pastern  to  pass  into  the 
borders  of  the  anterior  extensor  tendon  of  the  toe  at  about  the 
uaiddle  of  the  long  pastern  (Fig.  14,  &',  page  32). 


30  HORSESHOEING. 

Fig.  12.  Fig.  13. 


Fig.  11  shows  a  side  view,  and  Figs.  12  and  13  a  posterior  view  of  the  phalangeal  bones, 
with  their  articular  ligaments.  The  lettering  is  the  same  in  all  three  figures:  a,  lateral  liga- 
ment of  fetlock-joint;  6,  intersesamoid  ligament;  c,  suspensory  ligament  of  the  fetlock;  d, 
median  branch  of  inferior  sesamoid  ligament;  d',  lateral  branches  of  inferior  sesamoid  liga- 
ment; e,  deep  inferior  sesamoid  ligament;  /,  lateral  sesamoid  ligaments;  g,  inferior  coronary 
ligaments;  h,  superior  coronary  ligaments;  h',  median  coronary  ligaments;  i,  lateral  pedal 
ligament;  A:,  lateral  coronary  ligament  and  suspensory  ligament  of  the  navicular  bone;  I, 
interosseous  ligament. 

5.  The  inferior  sesamoid  ligament  (Figs.  11,  d\  12,  d,  d' , 
and  13,  d ,  E).  This  originates  at  the  lowest  part  of  the  sesamoid 
bones  and  intersesamoid  ligament,  and  consists  of  three  parts  or 


HORSESHOEING.  31 

branches.  The  median,  branch  {d)  is  the  longest  and  strongest, 
and  takes  its  lower  attachment  in  the  middle  of  the  fibro-carti- 
laginous  lip  found  on  the  upper  border  of  the  posterior  face  of 
the  second  phalanx.  The  two  lateral  branches  (d')  approach 
each  other  as  they  descend,  and  terminate  on  the  sides  of  the 
roughened  triangle  on  the  posterior  face  of  the  first  phalanx. 

6.  The  deep  inferior  sesamoid  ligament  (Fig.  13,  e)  is  quite 
short,  and  consists  of  a.  number  of  distinct,  thin  fibrous  bands 
lying  directly  against  the  bone  and  entirely  covered  by  the 
median  and  lateral  inferior  sesamoid  ligaments.  These  fibrous 
bands  cross  one  another  in  passing  from  the  sesamoids  to  the 
first  phalanx. 

II.  The  coronary  joint  is  the  simplest  of  the  three  articula- 
tions of  the  foot.  The  long  pastern  furnishes  two  condyles  and 
the  short  pastern  two  glenoid  cavities.  Besides  a  capsular  liga- 
ment tliere  are — 

1.  Two  lateral  coronary  ligaments  (Jc)  and, 

2.  Six  posterior  coronary  ligaments, — namely,  two  superior 
coronary  ligaments  (^),  tivo  median  coronary  ligaments  (h'), 
and  two  inferior  coronary  ligaments  (g). 

III.  The  pedal  articulation  ("cofiin"  joint)  is  an  imper- 
fect hinge-joint,  and  is  formed  by  the  condyles  at  the  lower  end 
of  the  short  pastern  and  the  two  glenoid  cavities  in  the  united 
upper  surfaces  of  the  pedal  and  navicular  bones.  Besides  the 
capsular  ligament  (Figs.  12  and  13',  ?),  which  binds  all  three 
bones  together,  there  are  the  following  accessory  ligaments : 

1.  Two  strong  lateral  ligaments,  an  external  and  an  internal 
(Fig.  11,  ^),  whose  posterior  borders  are  lost  in  the  lateral 
cartilages  which  cover  them. 

2.  Two  lateral  suspensory  ligaments  of  the  navicular  bone 
(k).  They  begin  on  the  posterior  border  and  ends  of  the 
navicular  bone,  and  terminate  on  the  lower  part  of  the  anterior 
surface  of  the  os  suifraginis,  where  they  are  lost  in  the  lateral 
ligaments  of  the  coronary  articulation. 

3.  The  lateral  ligaments  of  the  lateral  cartilages,  navicular 
bone,  and  os  pedis.  They  are  short,  and  unite  the  navicular 
bone  with  the  os  pedis  and  lateral  cartilages. 


32 


HORSESHOEING. 


Of  the  three  phalangeal  articulations,  the  pedal  is  the  only 
one  that  permits  of  any  lateral  movement ;  hence  it  is  an  im- 
perfect hinge-joint. 

C.  The  Locomotory  Organs  of  the  Foot. 


Though  the  musch 


^L^ 


are  the  organs  which  produce  motion, 
the  horseshoer  need  con- 
cern himself  only  with 
the  tendons  of  those 
muscles  which  extend 
and  flex  the  phalanges. 
These  tendons  are 
either  extensors  or  flex- 
ors. The  extensors  lie  on 
the  anterior  face  and  the 
flexors  on  the  posterior 
face  of  the  phalanges. 

The  anterior  exten- 
sor of  the  phalanges 
(Fig.  14,  a)  extends 
the  long  and  short  pas- 
terns and  the  hoof -bone ; 
it  is  broad,  and  made 
somewhat  broader  by  rer 
ceiving  the  branches  of 
the  suspensory  ligament 
{V)  that  come  from  the 
sesamoid  bones.  It  takes 
a    firm    attachment    on 

Right  forefoot  viewed  from  in  front  and  from  the  ex-  ^^  pyramidal  eminence 

ternal  side:  a,  anterior  extensor  tendon  of  the  toe;  h,  ^  "^ 

suspensory  ligament  of  the  fetlocli;  fc',  branch  of  the  of  the  OS  pcdis.       In  the 

same  passing  forward  and  uniting  with  the  extensor  n         j;              i          -i 

tendon  of  the  toe ;  c,  extensor  tendon  of  the  os  suffraginis  lOreleet     the     lOUg     paS- 

(absent  in  the  hind  leg),  called  the  lateral  extensor.  ^^^^^  ^^^  ^  ^^^^.^^  ^^^^^_ 

sor  tendon  (c),  which  is  known  as  the  lateral  extensor.  When  the 
muscles  to  which  these  tendons  are  attached  act, — that  is,  when 


HORSESHOEING. 


33 


we  term  this 


Fig 


tbej  draw  themselves  together,  or  contract,  as 
action, — the  foot  is  carried  forward  (extended). 

There  are  tivo  flexor  tendons  of  the 
phalanges, — namely,  the  superficial 
(perforatus  tendon)  and  the  deep 
(perforans  tendon). 

1.  The  superficial  fiexor  or  per- 
foratus tendon  (Figs.  15,  h,  and  16, 
a,  h)  lies  behind,  immediately  imder 
the  skin,  and  covers  the  deep  flexor  or 
perforans  tendon.  At  the  gliding  sur- 
face between  the  sesamoid  bones  (Eig. 
15,  /)  it  broadens,  and  forms  a  ring 
or  tube  (Fig.  15,  V)  tlirough  which 
the  perforans  tendon  (a'")  passes, 
while  a  short  distance  farther  down  it 
bifurcates,  or  divides  into  two 
branches  (Figs.  15,  V%  and  16,  &), 
which  terminate,  one  on  either  side, 
partly  on  the  inferior  lateral  borders 
of  the  first  phalanx  and  partly  on  the 
fibro-cartilage  of  the  second  phalanx. 
It  acts  simultaneously  on  the  long  and 
short  pasterns. 

2.  The   deep   fiexor   or   perforans 


Right  forefoot  seen  from  behind:  a,  lower  end  of  the 
perforans  tendon,  cut  through  and  hanging  down,  so 
that  its  anterior  surface  is  visible;  a',  lower  expanded 
end  (plantar  aponeurosis)  of  this  tendon,  which  attaches 
itself  to  the  semilunar  crest  of  the  os  pedis;  a",  shallow 
groove  which  receives  the  slight  elevation  on  the  under 
surface  of  the  navicular  bone;  a'",  piece  of  the  perforans 
tendon  enclosed  by  the  ring  formed  by  the  perforatus 
tendon;  6,  perforatus  tendon  bent  over  backward  so  that 
its  anterior  surface  ia  v-isible;  6',  ring  of  the  perforatus  tendon;  h",  terminal  branches  of 
the  same;  the  perforans  tendon  passes  through  the  space  between  these  two  branches;  c, 
navicular  bone;  d,  suspensory  ligament  of  the  same;  e,  smooth  surface  on  the  os  coronse  over 
which  the  perforans  tendon  glides;  /,  the  smooth  groove  (sesamoid  groove)  on  the  posterior 
surface  of  the  intersesamoid  ligament  for  the  gliding  of  the  perforans  tendon;  g,  body  of  the 
suspensory  ligament  of  the  fetlock;  g',  terminal  branches  of  the  same,  attaching  to  the  sesa- 
moid bones. 


34 


HORSESHOEING. 


Fig.  16. 


tendon  (Figs.  15,  a,  and  16,  c)  is  cylindrical  and  stronger  thaa 
the  perforatus  tendon;  above  the  fetlock-joint  it  lies  between 
the  perforatus  and  the  suspensory  liga- 
ment of  the  fetlock.  At  the  sesamoid 
bones  it  passes  through  the  ring  formed 
by  the  perforatus  tendon  (Fig.  15,  h'), 
then  becomes  broad  and  double-edged, 
passes  between  the  two  terminal 
branches  of  the  perforatus,  glides  over 
the  fibro-cartilage  of  the  second  phalanx 
and  over  the  inferior  surface  of  the 
navicular  bone,  and  finally  ends  on  the 
semilunar  crest  of  the  third  phalanx. 
In  common  with  the  perforatus  tendon 
it  flexes  the  foot. 

If  at  a  point  a  few  inches  above  the 
fetlock  a  limb  be  cut  through  from  be- 
hind, the  knife  will  pass  successively 
through  the  following  structures:  skin, 
perforatus  tendon,  perforans  tendon, 
suspensory  ligament,  cannon  bone, 
lateral  extensor  tendon,  anterior  exten- 
sor tendon,  and,  lastly,  the  skin  on  the 
anterior  surface  of  the  limb.  The  flexor 
tendons  are  frequently  thickened  and 
shortened  by  inflammation  due  to  in- 
jury, and  as  a  result  the  foot  is  pulled 
backward  and  the  hoof  gradually  be- 
comes more  nearly  upright, — i.e.,  stub- 
by,   steep-toed.      A    knowledge    of   the 

Right  forefoot  seen  from  behind  and  a  little  from  the  external  side:  a,  perforatus  tendon; 
b,  terminal  branches  of  the  same;  c,  perforans  tendon;  d,  annular  ligament  which  attaches 
to  the  sesamoid  bones:  d',  the  "x"  ligament,  which  attaches  by  four  branches  to  the  oa  suf- 
fraginis;.d",  an  upper  branch  of  the  same  (the  lower  branches  are  not  shown  in  the  figure); 
e,  reinforcing  sheath  of  the  perforans  tendon,  covering  the  under  surface  of  the  latter  and 
attached  by  its  branches  at  e'  to  the  lower  end  of  the  os  suffraginis;  /,  suspensory  ligament 
of  the  fetlock. 


HORSESHOEING.  35 

normal  coBdition  of  the  tendons  is,  therefore,  absolutely 
necessary  to  the  horseshoer.  Both  flexor  tendons  are  em- 
braced and  held  in  place  by  ligaments  and  fascia  passing  out 
from  the  phalanges  (Figs.  16,  d' ,  and  24,  e,  f).  The  extensor 
and  flexor  tendons  essentially  contribute  to  the  strong  union  of 
the  phalangeal  bones,  and  especially  to  the  support  and  stability 
of  the  fetlock- joint.  The  gliding  of  the  tendons  is  made  easy 
by  the  secretion  of  a  lubricating  fluid,  called  ^synovia,  from  the 
inner  surface  of  the  sheaths  which  surround  them.  In  thin- 
skinned  well-bred  horses  with  sound  limbs  one  can  not  only  dis- 
tinctly feel  the  tendons  through  the  skin,  but  can  see  their  out- 
line. When  the  tendons  and  hones  are  free  from  all  inflammatory 
thickenings,  and  the  tendon  sheaths  are  not  visibly  distended,  we 
say  that  the  leg  is  "  clean." 

Mucous  Bursae  and  Tendon  Sheaths. 

Accessory  to  the  tendons,  there  are  in  the  foot  roundish, 
membranous  sacs  (mucous  bursas)  and  membranous  tubes  (ten- 
don sheaths).  Both  contain  a  liquid  resembling  synovia  ("  joint- 
w^ater"),  which  facilitates  the  gliding  of  the  tendons.  These 
bursae  and  sheaths  are  often  distended  to  form  soft  tumors, 
known  as  hygromata  ("  mnd-puffs,"  "wind-galls"). 

(a)  Mucous  Bursae. — They  lie  beneath  tendons  at  those 
places  where  the  tendons  pass  over  bony  prominences. 

1.  The  mucous  bursa  of  the  anterior  extensor  tendon  of  the 
to©  is  about  the  size  of  a  walnut,  and  lies  between  the  tendon 
and  the  capsular  ligament  of  the  fetlock-joint  (Figs.  17,  g,  and 
18,  e). 

2.  The  mucous  bursa  of  the  extensor  tendon  of  the  long  pas- 
tern (lateral  extensor)  is  somewhat  smaller,  and  lies,  likewise, 
beneath  the  tendon,  between  it  and  the  capsular  ligament  of  the 
fetlock-joint  (Fig.  11,  h). 

3.  The  mucous  bursa  of  the  navicular  region  lies  between 
tlie  under  surface  (gliding  surface)  of  the  navicular  bone  and 
the  flexor  pedis  perforaris   tendon    (deep  flexor).      Its  width 


36 


HORSESHOEING. 


equals  the  length  of  the  navicular  bone,  and  it  extends  upward 
and  do^vnward  beyond  the  bone.  Above,  it  is  separated  from 
the  sheath  of  the  perforans  tendon  ("  great  sesamoid  sheath  ") 
by  a  membranous  partition ;  below,  it  passes  to  the  attachment 
of  the  perforans  tendon  to  the  semilunar  crest  of  the  os  pedis. 
(h)  There  is  but  one  tendon  sheath  in  the  foot, — the  sheath 
common  to  the  two  flexor  tendons  (great  'sesamoid  sheath).     It 


Fig.  17. 


Fig.  18. 


Right  forefoot  seen  from  the  inner  side;  d, 
d',  d",  d'",  great  sesamoid  sheath;  e,  mucous 
bursa  beneath  anterior  extensor  tendon  of 
the  toe;  /,  synovial  distension  of  fetlock- 
joint;  10,  inner  sesamoid  bone;  11,  "x"  liga- 
ment; 14,  fetlock-joint;  15,  lateral  cartilage; 
16,  suspensory  ligament  of  lateral  cartilage 
(Ellenberger  in  Leisering's  Atlas  and  Veteri- 
nary Anatomy,  Sisson,  Saunders.) 


Right  forefoot  seen  from  the  external  side ; 
/.  /'i  /".  /'"■  great  sesamoid  sheath  (tendon- 
sheath)  ;  g,  mucous  bursa  beneath  anterior 
extensor  tendon  of  the  toe;  h,  mucous  bursa 
beneath  extensor  tendon  of  long  pastern;  i, 
synovial  distension  of  the  fetlock-joint;  7, 
suspensory  ligament;  9,  cannon  bone;  10, 
outer  sesamoid  bone;  12,  fetlock-joint;  13, 
lateral  cartilage;  14,  suspensory  ligament  of 
the  lateral  cartilage.  (Ellenberger  in  Lei- 
sering's Atlas  and  Veterinary  Anatomy, 
Sisson,  Saunders.) 

encloses  the  flexor  tendons  from  the  middle  third  of  the  cannon 
down  to  the  middle  of  the  short  pastern,  and  is  intimately  united 
with  the  flexor  pedis  perforans  tendon  (Fig.  17,  f,  f,  f\  f". 
Fig.  18,  d,  d',  d'',  d'"). 

Altering  the  Relative  Tension  of  the  Flexor  Tendons  and 
Suspensory  Ligament  of  the  Fetlock-Joint. 

The  body- weight  imposed  at  the  fetlock-joint  is  supported, 
in  large  part,  by  the  suspensory  ligament ;  somewhat  less  weight 


HORSESHOEING.  37 

is  borne  by  the  perforans  tendon,  and  a  still  smaller  amount  by 
the  perforatus.  The  coronary  joint  is  supported  chiefly  by  the 
perforatus,  assisted  by  the  perforans.  The  pedal  joint  is  pressed 
fonvard  and  upward  by  the  perforans  tendon  passing  in  a  curve 
beneath  the  navicular  bone.  Each  of  these  three  structures  bears 
its  normal  proportion  of  the  body-weight  Avhen  the  three  pha- 
langes, as  view^ed  from  the  side,  form  a  continuous  straight  line 
from  the  fetlock- joint  to  the  ground.  In  such  a  case  the  obliquity 
of  the  long  pastern  will  be  the  same  as  that  of  the  toe  (see 
Foot- Axis,  p.  70). 

Raising  the  toe  by  means  of  a  tip,  a  full  shoe  with  thinned 
branches  or  a  toe-calk,  or  paring  away  the  quarters  will  tilt  the 
OS  pedis  backward,  break 
the  foot-axis  backward  in 
the  pedal  joint  and  to  a 
less  extent  in  the  coron' 
ary  joint,  and  increase 
the  tension  of  the  per- 
forans tendon  consider- 
ably and  of  the  perfo- 
ratus slightly.  These 
tendons  tightening  be- 
hind    the    fetlock  -  joint 

force  it  forward,   causing  Rig^t  forefoot  viewed  from  the  external  side:  A.  os 

tVi<^   Inno-  T^n<?fA-m   fn   <4tnnf]  coronae;  B,  os  pedis;  C.  external  lateral  cartilage;  a, 

tne   long  pastern  to   Stana  ,^^g^^,  p^^^,  y^^^^^^^.  j,,  Ugament  uniting  the  lateral 

SteeOer     and    takinsr   some  cartilage  with  the  os  coronae;  c,  aponeurosis  joining 

J        '                              ^  lateral  cartilage  and  os  pedis. 

strain   from   the   suspen- 
sory ligament.     Hence,  the  perforans  tendon  is  under  greatest 
tension,  and  the  suspensory  ligament  under  least  tension,  when 
the  foot-axis  is  broken  strongly  backward. 

Shortening  the  toe,  or  raising  the  quarters  by  heel-calks  or 
thickened  branches,  will  tilt  the  os  pedis  forward,  break  the 
foot-axis  forward  in  the  pedal  joint,  and  wall  greatly  lessen  the 
tension  of  the  perforans  tendon.  The  aggregate  tension  of 
perforans  and  perforatus  tendons  being  diminished,  the  fetlock 


38 


HORSESHOEING. 


sinks  downward  and  backward,  the  long  pastern  assumes  a  more 
nearly  horizontal  direction,  and  the  tension  of  the  suspensory 
ligament  is  increased.  Thus,  the  perforans  tendon  is  under 
least  tension,  and  the  suspensory  ligament  under  greatest  strain, 
when  the  foot-axis  is  broken  strongly  forward. 

D.  The  Elastic  Parts  of  the  Foot. 

All  bodies  which  under  pressure  or  traction  change  their 
form,  but  return  again  to  their  original  shape  as  soon  as  the 
pressure  or  traction  ceases,  are  called  elastic  or  springy.   Nearly 

Fig.  20. 


Os  pedis  and  inner  face  of  one  lateral  cartilage;  a,  toe  of  os  pedis;  a',  pyramidal  eminence 
to  which  the  extensor  tendon  attaches;  a",  wing  of  pedal  bone;  6,  lateral  cartilage;  C,  points 
of  attachment  of  suspensory  ligament  of  lateral  cartilage;  d,  point  of  insertion  of  ligament 
to  the  short  pastern;  e,  point  of  insertion  of  ligaments  from  navicular  bone. 


all  parts  of  the  horse's  foot,  except  the  bones,  possess  more  or 
less  elasticity.  The  lateral  cartilages  and  the  plantar  cushion 
are  elastic  to  a  high  degree,  but  the  coronary  hand,  the  laminae, 
the  articular  cartilage,  and  the  homy  box  or  hoof  are  less  elastic. 
This  property  or  characteristic  is  possessed  by  the  respective 


HORSESHOEING. 


39 


parts  of  the  foot  in  accordance  \vitli  their  function,  location, 
and  structure. 

The  two  lateral  cartilages    (Figs.   19,  C  and  20,  b)   are 


Fig.  21. 


Fig.  22. 


Plantar  cushion  seen  from  be- 
low: a,  base  or  bulb  of  the  plantar 
cushion;  6,  summit;  c,  median 
lacuna  or  cleft  in  which  lies  the 
"frog-stay"  of  the  horny  frog. 


Plantar  cushion  seen  from  above:  a,  base 
(bulbs)  of  same;  b,  summit;  c,  supensory  liga- 
ment of  plantar  cushion;  d,  place  at  which  the 
elastic  ligament  connecting  the  os  suffraginis 
and  the  lateral  cartilage  unites  with  the  plan- 
tar cushion. 


irregular,  quadrangular  plates,  attached  to  the  wings  of  the  os 
pedis,  and  extending  so  far  upward  and  backward  that  one  can 
feel  them  yield  to  pressure  on 
the  skin  above  the  coronet,  and 
can  thus  test  their  elasticity. 
The  perforans  tendon  and  the 
plantar  cushion  lie  between 
the  lateral  cartilages,  and  on 
the  sides  and  behind  are  par- 
tially enclosed  by  them.  The 
internal  concave  surface  of  the  ^P^^  or  point  of  fleshy  frog 

tissue    of   plantar    cushion;    d, „   ^.v,.„ 

lateral    cartilage     (Fig.     20)     is     which    receives    the    frog-stay   of    the    horny 


Section  lengthwise  through  middle  of  the 
plantar  cushion:  a,  glome  (bulb)  of  heels;  b, 
fibro  fatty 
median   cleft 


frog. 


attached  to  the  plantar 
cushion,  the  os  pedis,  and  the  navicular  bone,  and,  like  the 
external,  slightly  convex  surface,  is  covered  with  many  blood- 
vessels (veins)  Fig.  25,  B). 


40 


HORSESHOEING. 


Fig.  24. 


The  plantar  cushion  (Figs.  21,  22,  23)  is  composed  almost 
entirely  of  yellow  elastic  and  white  fibrous  tissues,  with  adipose 
(fat)  cells  distributed  throughout  their  substance.    It  is  similar 

in  form  to  the  horny  frog,  and 
lies  between  it  and  the  perforans 
tendon  (Fig.  24,  a).  The  bulbs 
are  formed  by  the  posterior 
thicker  portion  which  lies  be- 
tween the  lateral  cartilages  and 
is  divided  into  two  parts  by  the 
cleft  or  median  lacuna  (Figs. 
21,  a,  and  23,  d).  The  summit 
is  attached  to  the  plantar  face 
of  the  OS  pedis  in  front  of  the 
semilunar  crest,  and  the  bulbs 
are  attached  to  the  lateral  car- 
tilages. It  is  covered  inferiorly 
by  the  velvety  tissue  of  the  frog 
(pododerm). 


Right  forefoot  viewed  from  below,  behind, 
and  the  external  side.  This  figure  shows 
clearly  the  position  of  the  plantar  cushion. 
The  external  lateral  cartilage  and  the  tissues 
covering  the  plantar  cushion  and  under  sur- 
face of  the  OS  pedis  (velvety  tissue  of  the  sole 
and  fleshy  frog)  have  been  removed:  a,  fleshy 
frog  or  plantar  cushion;  a',  bulbs  of  plantar 
cushion;  the  remaining  visible  parts  belong  to 
the  so-called  "fleshy  frog;"  a",  groove  (median 
lacuna)  in  the  lower  surface  of  the  fleshy  frog, 
in  which  lies  the  frog-stay  of  the  horny  frog; 
h,  suspensory  ligament  of  the  plantar  cushion 
passing  out  of  the  bulbs;  6',  small  elastic  cords 
passing  to  the  lateral  cartilage;  c,  elastic  liga- 
ment coming  from  the  lateral  cartilage  and 
uniting  with  the  suspensory  ligament  of  the 
plantar  cushion;  d,  small  tendinous  cord  be- 
ginning in  the  skin  behind  the  fetlock-joint 
and  ending  on  the  os  suffraginis  in  common 
with  6  and  e;  e,  tendinous  reinforcing  sheath  of 
the  perforans  tendon;  /,  reinforcing  stay  of  the 
perforatus   tendon;  g,  perforatus   tendon;    h, 

perforans  tendon;  i,  suspensory  ligament  of  the  fetlock;  k,  plantar  surface  of  the  os  pedis,  to 

which  the  plantar  cushion  is  joined  by  fibrous  bands. 


HORSESHOEING.  41 

E.  The  Blood-Vessels  and  Nerves. 

Vessels  which  carry  blood  from  the  heart  to  the  tissues  are 
called  arteries,  while  those  which  return  the  blood  to  the  heart 
from  the  tissues  are  called  veins.  Arteries  and  veins  are  con- 
nected by  very  small,  thread-like  vessels  called  capillaries,  which 
originate  in  the  smallest  arteries  and  are  so  minute  that  they 
can  not  be  seen  without  the  aid  of  a  microscope.  The  capillaries 
penetrate  the  soft  tissues  in  every  direction,  and  finally  unite  to 
form  small  veins.  For  our  purpose  we  need  consider  only  the 
arteries  and  veins. 

The  arteries  carrying  blood  from  the  heart  ramify  and  sub- 
divide in  all  parts  of  the  body,  and  thus  reach  the  foot.  Tliey 
are  thick-walled,  very  elastic  tubes,  without  valves,  and  carry 
bright-red  blood,  which  flows  in  spurts,  as  can  be  seen  when  an 
artery  is  cut.  If  a  finger  be  pressed  lightly  over  an  artery  lying 
near  the  surface,  the  blood-w^ave  can  be  felt  as  a  light  stroke 
(pulse).  The  character  of  the  pulse  is  important,  because  in 
inflammations  of  the  pododerm  or  horn-producing  membrane 
of  the  foot  we  can  ascertain  by  feeling  that  the  pulse  is  stronger 
than  usual  in  the  large  arteries  cai*rying  blood  to  the  inflamed 
foot. 

On  either  side  of  the  phalanges  below  the  fetlock-joint  there 
lies  an  artery  called  the  digital  artery  (Fig.  25,  a).  The  pulse 
can  be  felt  in  it  as  it  passes  over  the  fetlock  at  A,  Fig.  25.  It 
gives  off  the  following  collateral  (side)  branches:  1.  The  artery 
of  the  first  phalanx  (pei*pendicular  artery),  with  anterior  and 
posterior  branches.  2.  The  artery  of  the  plantar  cushion,  which 
supplies  with  blood  the  plantar  cushion,  the  velvety  tissue  of 
the  sole  and  frog,  the  bar  portion  of  the  coronary  band,  and  the 
sensitive  laminje  of  the  bars.  3.  The  coronary  artery,  which 
carries  blood  to  the  coronary  band,  os  coronse,  ligaments  of  the 
coronary  and  pedal  joints,  flexor  tendons,  and  skin. 

The  terminal  branches  of  the  digital  arteries  are  the  preplan- 
tar  and  plantar  ungual  artenes.     The  preplantar  artery  passes 


42 


HORSESHOEING. 


through  the  notch  in  the  wdng  of  the  os  pedis,  then  along  the 
preplantar  fissure,  splitting  up  into  many  branches,  which  spread 
over  and  penetrate  the  porous  surface  of  the  os  pedis.     The 


Fig.  25. 


Side  view  of  forefoot,  showing  blood-vessels  and  nerves:  o,  digital  artery;  b,  anterior  artery 
of  the  OS  suffraginis;  d,  anterior  coronary  artery,  or  circumflex  artery  of  the  coronet;  e,' pre- 
plantar ungual  artery;  /',  inferior  communicating  arteries  passing  out  from  the  semilunar 
artery  of  the  os  pedis,  through  minute  holes  just  above  the  lower  border  of  the  bone;  they 
unite  to  form  (/")  the  circumflex  artery  of  the  toe;  A,  digital  vein;  B,  superficial  venous 
plexus  of  coronary  band  and  lateral  cartilage;  C,  podophyllous  venous  plexus;  G,  circumflex 
vein  of  the  toe;  1,  plantar  nerve;  2,  anterior  digital  branch  of  same;  3,  posterior  digital  branch 
of  same;  4,  small  cutaneous  branches  of  same. 


plantar  artery  courses  along  the  plantar  fissure,  enters  the 
plantar  foramen,  and  passes  into  the  semilunar  sinus  of  the  os 
pedis,  where  it  unites  with  the  terminal  branch  of  the  opposite 
digital  artery,  forming  the  senvi-lurmr  arch. 


HORSESHOEING. 


43 


Fig.  26. 


After  the  arterial  or  pure  blood  passes  through  the  capil- 
laries it  is  collected  bj  the  veins,  to  be  returned  to  the  heart ; 
then  it  is  driven  to  the  lungs  for  purification,  and  is  again  re- 
turned to  the  heart,  from, 
whence  it  is  pumped  through 
the  arteries  to  all  parts  of 
the  body. 

The  veins  are  more 
numerous  than  the  arteries ; 
they  have  thinner  walls, 
and  the  larger  ones  are  pro- 
vided mth  valves  tliat  pre- 
vent the  impure  blood  from 
flowing  backward.  The 
veins  carry  impure  or  dark- 
red  blood  towards  the  heart, 
and  if  one  is  opened  the 
dark  blood  flows  in  a  steady 
stream;  it  does  not  spurt. 
The  great  number  of  vein- 
lets  in  the  lower  parts  of 
the  foot  form  a  complex 
net- work  (plexus)  of  ves- 
sels which  are  in  such  mani- 
fold and  close  union  with 
one  another  that  checking 
the  flow  of  blood  in  one  part 

J                 .            •          1        •            /•  ^°°*  viewed  from  below  and  behind:  a,  digital 

does   not   seriously    mteriere  arteries;. c,  arteries  of  the  plantar  cushion;  /'", 

,„:+'U      4-1, „       /!„ : „J?      4.1,  small  branches  of  the  semilunar  artery  of  the  os 

With      the      flowing      0±      the  pedis,  which  ramify  in  the  velvety  tissue  of  the 

blood      towards      the      larger  sole;yl,digitalvein;B,  venous  plexus  of  the  heels 

^  or  bulbs;  D,  solar  venous  plexus;  G,  circumflex 

veins.         The     following     are  vein  of  the  toe;  3,  posterior  digital  branch  of  the 

.                       .  plantar  nerve;  4,  cutaneous  branches  of  the  same. 

the  most  important  of  these 

net-works  of  veins  or  venous  plexuses :  ( 1 )  the  solar  venous 
plexus  (Fig.  26,  D)  :  (2)  the  podophj/Uous  venous  plexus  (Fig. 
25,  C)  ;  (3)  superficial  coronary  venous  plexus  (Fig.  25,  B)  ; 


44  HORSESHOEING. 

(4)  bulbar  venous  plexus  (Fig.  26,  B).  All  these  plexuses  of 
small  veins  contribute  to  form  the  digital  veins  (Figs.  25  and 
26,  A), 

Nerves  are  roundish  white  cords  which  come  from  the  brain 
and  spinal  cord;  they  generally  accompany  arteries.  They 
divide  and  subdivide  into  smaller  and  smaller  branches  till  they 
become  invisible  to  the  naked  eye  and  are  lost  in  the  tissues. 
The  nerves  that  are  found  in  the  foot  come  from  the  spinal 
cord,  and  because  the  largest  nerves  of  the  foot  accompany  the 
digital  arteries  they  are  called  digital  nerves  (Fig.  25,  1).  The 
branches  ramify  throughout  all  parts  of  the  foot  except  the 
horny  box  and  the  hair.  Nerves,  according  to  their  use  or 
function,  are  classed  as  motor  and  sensory.  The  motor  nerves 
end  in  muscles  which  they  stimulate  to  action  and  control.  The 
sensory  nerves  terminate  in  the  skin  and  iti  the  soft  tissues  just 
under  the  homy  box  or  hoof  (pododerm),  and  render  these 
parts  sensitive ;  that  is,  they  convey  certain  feelings,  as,  for 
example,  the  pain  caused  by  bruising,  pricking,  or  close-nailing, 
to  the  brain  and  consciousness. 

F.  The  Protective  Organs  of  the  Foot. 

The  protective  organs  are  the  skin  and  the  horny  box  or  hoof. 

The  external  skin,  or  hide,  covers  the  entire  body ;  in  the  feet 
it  covers  the  bones,  tendons,  and  ligaments,  even  passing  in 
under  the  hoof  and  directly  covering  the  os  pedis.  This  portion 
of  the  skin,  enclosed  by  the  hoof  and  therefore  invisible,  is  called 
the  pododerm  or  foot-skin.  In  Germany  it  is  called  the  hoof- 
sl'in  (huflederhaut),  because  it  is  a  continuation  of  the  outer 
visible  skin,  and  because  it  secretes  the  hoof, — ^that  is,  the  hoof 
is  produced  by  it.  That  part  of  the  skin  which  is  covered  Tvdth 
hair  is  known  as  the  external  or  hair-skin. 

(a)  The  hair-skin  (Fig.  27,  a)  consists  of  three  superposed 
layers, — (1)  the  external  superficial  layer,  or  epidermis;  (2) 
the  middle  layer,  derm  or  leather-skin  (so-called  because  leather 
is  made  from  it)  ;  (3)  the  internal  layer,  or  subcutaneous  con- 
nective tissue. 


HORSESHOEING. 


45 


1.  The  external  layer,  or  epidermis,  is  composed  merely  of 
le  flattened,  horn-like  cells  (scales)  lying  side  by  side  and 

over  one  another,  and  uniting  to  form  one  entire  structure, — a 
thin,  horn-like  layer,  Avithout  blood-vessels  or  nerves.  It  extends 
over  the  entire  surface  of  the  body,  and  protects  the  underlying, 
very  sensitive  middle  layer  from  external  influences.  The 
oldest  cell-layers  lie  on  the  outer  surface,  and  are  being  con- 
tinuously brushed  off  in  patches  or  scales,  while  new  ones  are 
constantly  being  formed  on 
the  outer  surface  of  the 
middle  layer. 

2.  The  middle  layer, 
leather-shin  or  dermis,  is 
composed  of  solid,  fibrous, 
and  elastic  tissues,  and  eon- 
tains  many  blood-vessels, 
small  nerves,  sweat-  and  oil- 
glands,  and  hair  follicles 
from  which  the  hair  grows. 
The  hair  upon  the  posterior 
surface  of  the  fetlock- joint 
is  usually  long  and  coarse, 
forming  a  tuft  knoA\Ti  as  the 
"  footlock,"  which  encloses 
a  homy  spur,  called  the 
ergot.  Common  bred  horses 
have,  as  a  rule,  larger  and 

coarser  footlocks  than  thoroughbreds.  The  derm  or  leather- 
skin,  which  produces  the  hair  and  epiderm,  is  the  thickest  and 
most  important  layer  of  the  skin. 

3.  The  inner  layer,  or  suhcutaneons  tissue,  unites  the  middle 
layer  with  the  muscles,  tendons,  ligaments,  bones,  or  other 
structures.  It  is  that  loose  fibrous  mesh  or  net-work  through 
which  the  butclier  cuts  in  removing  the  hide  from  the  carcass. 

{h)  The  hoof-skin  (Figs.  27  and  28,  &,  c,  c^),  or  pododerm, 


Foot  from  which  the  horny  capsule  or  hoof,  haa 
been  removed  by  prolonged  soaking:  o,  skin;  on 
the  left  the  hair  has  been  rubbed  awaj';  6,  perio- 
plic  band;  c,  coronary  cushion;  d,  podophyllous 
tissue  (fleshy  leaves) ;  at  the  lower  Ijorder  of  the 
figure  can  be  seen  the  minute  thread-like  pro- 
cesses or  villi  which  grow  down  from  the  lower 
end  of  each  fleshy  leaf. 


46 


HORSESHOEING. 


is  completely  enclosed  by  the  hoof.  Although  it  is  only  an  ex- 
tension of  the  derm  or  middle  layer  of  the  hair-skin,  it  differs 
from  the  latter  in  structure  and  relations. 

In  order  to  study  the  pododerm  we  should  not  wrench  the 
hoof  off  with  violence,  but  should  allow  the  foot  to  partially  de- 
compose by  leaving  it  for  six  to  eight  days  at  ordinary  room  tem- 
perature; it  can  then  be 
removed  without  injuring 
the  pododerm.  After  the 
hoof  has  been  removed  the 
entire  pododerm  presents  a 
more  or  less  dark-red  color 
(flesh-color),  which  is  due 
to  the  great  number  of 
blood-vessels  that  it  con- 
tains. For  this  reason  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  podo- 
derm   have    received    the 

prefix  "  fleshy,"  as  for  ex- 
Foot  from  which  the  near  half  of  the  horny  wall  ,  n  i  m  n  ^ 
and  a  greater  part  of  the  so-called  fleshy  wall  have  ample,  neSUy  Wall,  HCSny 
been  removed,  in  order  to  show  the  relation  of  the  g^l-  flaclrvr  -frncr  e^fn  TVip* 
lateral  cartilage  to  adjacent  structures:  a,  vertical  =01 C,  ueSUy  irog,  CtC.  XUe 
section  of  the  skin  prolonged  downward  tlirough  the  pododorm  is  what  the  UU- 
pododerm  (foot-skm)  to  show  clearly  that  the  latter     ^ 

isbut  a  continuation  of  the  former;  a',  hairless  place  informed  horSCShoer  Calls 
on  the  skin;  b,  perioplic  band;  b',  line  indicating  the 
upper  border  of  the  same;  6",  surface  of  section  of 
the  periople,  or  perioplic  horn-band;  c,  coronary 
cushion;  c',  (left)  line  which  marks  the  upper  border 
of  the  coronary  cushion;  c",  section  of  wall  at  the 
toe;  d,  podophyllous  tissue  (sensitive  laminae);  e, 
horny  sole;  /,  white  line;  ff,  horny  frog;  h,  fleshy  frog; 
t,  lateral  cartilage. 


the  "  quick."  I  will  here 
remark  that  the  three 
layers  of  the  external  or 
hair^skin  are  represented 
in  the  foot;  however,  the 
epidermis  is  in  an  entirely  different  form, — namely,  the  homy 
box  or  hoof.  The  internal  layer  or  subcutaneous  tissue  of  the 
hair-skin  is  absent  in  those  parts  of  the  foot  where  the  pododerm 
covers  the  os  pedis.  There  remains,  therefore,  only  the  middle 
layer,  derm,  or  pododerni',  which  secretes  the  hoof,  and  which  is 
the  prolongation  and  representative  of  the  middle  layer  of  the 
hair-skin.     The  pododerm  is  distinguished  from  the  derm  of 


HORSESHOEING.  47 

the  hair-skin  chiefly  by  the  absence  of  hairs,  oil-  and  sweat- 
glands,  and  the  presence  on  its  outer  surface  of  fleshy,  sensitive 
iaminse  and  small  thread-like  projections  called  villi. 

The  pododerm  consists  of  five  different  parts :  the  perioplic 
hand,  the  coronary  hand,  the  sensitive  laminw  (podophyllous 
tissue),  the  velvety  tissue  of  the  sole,  and  the  velvety  tissue  of 
the  fleshy  frog. 

1.  The  penoplic  hand  (Eig.  28,  h)  is  a  naiTow  ridge,  about 
one-fifth  to  one-fourth  of  an  inch  wide,  lying  between  the  hair- 
skin  and  the  coronary  band.  Somewhat  broader  at  the  toe  than 
on  the  sides,  it  broadens  out  near  the  bulbs  of  the  heels,  over 
which  it  passes  to  end  in  the  velvety  tissue  of  the  fleshy  frog. 
It  is  separated  from  the  coronary  band  by  a  narrow  depression 
called  the  coronary  furrow  (Moeller).  The  surface  of  the 
perioplic  band  glistens  faintly,  and  is  thickly  studded  with  num- 
erous thread-like  projections  called  villi,  which  are  from  one- 
twenty-fourth  to  one-twelfth  of  an  inch  in  length.  The  perioplic 
band  secretes  the  soft  horn  of  the  perioplic  ring  and  the 
perioplic  or  varnish-like  outer  layer  of  the  wall. 

2.  The  coronary  hand  (Fig.  27,  c)  lies  between  the  perioplic 
band  and  the  sensitive  laminae  or  fleshy  leaves.  It  presents  a 
prominent  convex  band  or  cushion  about  three-fourths  of  an 
inch  wide,  which  extends  entirely  around  the  foot  from  one 
bulb  of  the  heel  to  the  other.  In  front  it  directly  covers  the 
anterior  extensor  tendon  of  the  toe,  and  at  the  sides  the  lateral 
surfaces  of  the  os  coronse  and  the  upper  part  of  the  lateral 
cartilages,  while  farther  back  towards  the  heels  the  lateral  car- 
tilages project  considerably  above  both  coronary  and  perioplic 
bands.  The  coronary  band  is  more  convex  (rounded)  in  front 
than  on  the  sides  of  the  foot,  and  is  flattened  in  the  region  of 
the  bulbs  of  the  heels.  Its  surface  is  thickly  covered  with  villi, 
which  are  longer  and  stronger  than  those  of  the  perioplic  band. 
At  the  bulbs  of  the  heels  the  coronary  band  turns  forward  and 
inward  along  the  fleshy  frog  nearly  to  its  summit.  This  portion 
of  the  coronary  band  is  from  one-third  to  one-half  an  inch  wide. 


48 


HORSESHOEING. 


and  is  called  the  har  portion  of  the  coronary  hand.  It  is  also 
covered  with  villi,  which  are  directly  continuous  with  those  of 
the  fleshy  frog.  The  coronary  band  secretes  the  principal  part 
(middle  layer)  of  the  horny  w^all  of  the  hoof,  including  the 
bar  portion  (bars)  of  the  wall. 

3.  The  fleshy  wall,  or  podophyllous  tissue  (Figs.  27,  28,  d, 
and  29,  a),  is  all  that  portion  of  the  pododerm  on  which  there 
are  fleshy  leaves.  This  leafy  tissue  covers  the  anterior  surface 
of  the  OS  pedis  and  the  lower  por- 
tion of  the  external  surface  of  the 
lateral  cartilages.  At  the  bulbs  of 
the  heels  it  turns  inward  at  a  sharp 
angle  and  extends  forward  and  in- 
ward, between  the  bar  portion  of 
the  coronary  band  and  the  poste- 
rior part  of  the  velvety  tissue  of 
the  sole,  nearly  to  the  middle  of 
the  solar  surface  of  the  foot,  to 
form  the  lamince  of  the  bars  (Fig. 
29,  a).  The  fleshy  wall  and  fleshy 
bars  are  not  covered  with  villi,  but 
Plantar  surface  of  a  foot  deprived  of  \\rith  numcrous  prominent,  paral- 

its  horny  capsule  by  prolonged  macera-    t    ■•       a      i         i  ^  -i       i 

tion:  a,  laminse  of  the  bars;  b,  velvety    Icl,     flCShy    leaveS    plaCCd    cloSC    to- 

each  of  which  runs   in   a 


gether, 
straight 


line  downward  and  for- 


tissue  of  the  sole;  c,  velvety  tissue  of  the 

frog;  d,  median  cleft  of  the  fleshy  frog, 

into    which   the  velvety   tissue  dips;   e 

bulbar   portion   of   the   perioplic   band, 

which  passes  insensibly  into  the  velvety    ward    from    the    COrOUary    band    tO 

tissue  of  the  fleshy  frog.  r     ^ 

the  lower  border  of  the  os  pedis. 
Between  the  fleshy  leaves  are  deep  furrows  in  which,  in  a 
foot  which  has  not  been  deprived  of  its  homy  capsule,  lie  the 
homy  or  insensitive  leaves  of  the  wall.  The  fleshy  leaves  (podo- 
phyllous laminee)  are  related  to  one  another  somewhat  as  the 
leaves  of  a  book ;  their  posterior  borders  are  attached  to  the  body 
or  basement  membrane  of  the  fleshy  wall,  while  their  anterior 
borders  and  sides  are  free.  At  their  upper  ends  immediately 
below  the  coronary  band  the  leaves  are  quite  narrow,  but  they 


HORSESHOEING.  49 

gradually  increase  in  width  down  to  the  middle,  and  thereafter 
maintain  that  breadth  to  the  lower  border  of  the  os  pedis,  where 
they  terminate  in  free,  fleshy  villi,  which  differ  in  no  respect 
from  those  of  the  fleshy  sole.  The  number  and  length  of  the 
fleshy  leaves  vary ;  in  a  medium-sized  foot  there  are  about  five 
hundred,  while  in  a  large  foot  there  may  be  as  many  as  six 
hundred.  On  the  anterior  surface  of  the  os  pedis  the  leaves  are 
thickest  and  longest;  on  the  sides  and  quarters  they  gradually 
decrease  in  length,  while  in  the  bar  region  they  are  the  shortest 
and  gradually  disappear  near  the  anterior  ends  of  the  bars. 
The  width  of  the  leaves  decreases  as  they  become  shorter.  Viewed 
with  the  naked  eye  the  leaves  appear  flat  and  smooth,  but  under 
the  microscope  one  can  see  on  both  sides  of  a  fleshy  leaf  numer- 
ous small,  fleshy  leaflets  parallel  to  one  another  and  extending 
lengthwise  with  the  larger  leaf.  The  large  ones  are  called  piin- 
cipal  leaves,  and  the  small  ones  are  kno^vn  as  collateral  leaves, 
or  simply  as  lea  fiefs. 

The  fleshy  leaves  (podophyllous  tissue)  secrete  the  horny 
leaves  (keraphyllous  tissue)  and  serve  to  bind  the  homy  wall 
to  the  pododerm.  The  strength  of  this  union  is  due  largely 
to  the  dovetailing  of  the  horny  leaves  and  their  leaflets  with 
the  fleshy  leaves  and  their  leaflets. 

4-.  The  ffeshy  sole  or  velvety  tissue  of  the  sole  (Fig.  29,  h) 
is  that  part  of  the  pododerm  which  covers  all  the  under  sur- 
face of  the  foot  except  the  plantar  cushion,  the  bar  lamina^,  and 
the  bar  portion  of  the  coronary  band.  It  is  sometimes  slate- 
colored  or  studded  with  black  spots,  but  is  usually  dark  red. 
It  is  thickly  set  with  villi,  which  are  especially  long  and 
strong  *  near  its  periphery.  The  fleshy  sole  covers  the  solar 
plexus,  or  net-work  of  veins,  and  secretes  the  horny  sole. 

5.   The  velvety  tissue  of  the  frog   (Fig.  29,  c)  covers  the 

*  In  order  to  see  the  length,  thickness,  and  abundance  of  the  villi 
of  the  pododerm,  place  the  foot  deprived  of  its  hoof  in  a  clear  glass 
jar  and  cover  it  with  waterj  renewing  the  latter  until  it  is  no  longer 
tinged  with  blood. 
4 


50 


HORSESHOEING. 


Fig.  30. 


lower  surface  of  the  plantar  cushion,  and  in  the  region  of  the 
bulbs  (e)  passes  insensibly  into  the  perioplic  band.  In  com- 
parison with  the  fleshy  sole,  it  has  much  finer  and  shorter  villi 
and  contains  fewer  blood-vessels.  It  secretes  the  soft,  horny 
frog. 

(c)  The  horn  capsule  or  hoof  (Fig.  30)  is  the  entire  mass 
made  up  of  the  horn-cells  secreted  from  the  whole  surface  of 

tlie  pododerm,  and  next 
to  the  shoe  is  the  organ 
with  which  the  horse- 
shoer  has  most  to  do. 
The  horn  capsule  or  hoof 
is  nothing  more  than  a 
very  thick  epidermis  that 
protects  the  horse's  foot, 
just  as  a  well-fitting  shoe 
protects  the  human  foot. 
The  hoof  of  a  sound  foot 
is  so  firmly  united  with 
the  underlying  pododerm 
that  only  an  extraordin- 
ary force  can  separate 
them.  In  its  normal  con- 
dition the  hoof  exactly 
fits  the  'soft  structures 
within  it;  hence  it  is 
evident  that  local  or 
general  contraction  of  the  hoof  must  produce  pressure  on  the 
blood-vessels  and  nerve^endings  of  the  pododerm,  disturb  the 
circulation  of  the  blood  and  the  nutrition  of  the  foot,  and 
cause  pain. 

The  hoof  is  divided  into  three  principal  parts,  which  are 
solidly  united  in  the  healthy  foot, — ^namely,  the  wall,  the  sole, 
and  the  frog.  That  part  of  the  hoof  which  is  almost  wholly 
visible  when  the  foot  is  on  the  ground  (Fig.  30,  h,  c),  and  which 


Side  view  of  hoof  recently  removed:  a,  the  perioplic 
horn-band;  it  is  swollen  from  prolonged  maceration  in 
water;  the  upper  border  shows  adhering  hairs;  the 
inner  surface  (perioplic  groove)  presents  many  minute 
openings;  a',  the  perioplic  horn-band  broadens  in 
passing  over  the  bulb  or  glome  of  the  heel,  and  is 
finally  lost  in  the  horny  frog;  a",  section  of  wall  re- 
moved. That  part  of  hoof  on  the  right  of  6  is  called 
the  toe;  between  6  and  c  is  the  side  wall  or  "mamma," 
and  between  c  and  d  the  "quarter;"  e,  projecting 
horny  frog;/,  coronary  groove  with  numerous  minute 
openings;  g,  keraphyllous  layer  of  the  wall  (horny 
leaves) . 


HORSESHOEING. 


51 


Fig.  31. 


protects  the  foot  in  front  and  upon  the  sides,  is  known  as  the 
wall.  In  position,  course,  direction,  and  an*angement  of  its 
parts  it  simulates  the  different  parts  of  the  pododerm  from 
which  it  is  developed.  It  extends  from  the  edge  of  the  hair 
just  above  the  coronary  band  to  the  ground ;  backward  it  gradu- 
ally decreases  in  height 
(length),  passes  around  the 
bulbs  of  the  heels,  and 
turns  forward  and  inward 
(Fig.  32,  d,  e,  and  34,  a,  b) 
to  form  the  bars,  which  are 
finally  lost  in  the  edge  of 
the  sole  near  the  summit  of 
the  frog.  It  thus  forms  at 
each  heel  an  angle  (Fig. 
31,  d,  and  32,  d)  known  as 
a  buttress,  which  encloses  a  ^ 
branch  of  the  homy  sole. 
Externally  the  wall  is 
smooth,  covered  with  the 
varnish-like  periople,  and 
presents  indistinct  ring-like 


markings    (Fig.   30).       Its 
inner  surface,  on  the  con- 


Plantar  surface  of  right  fore-hoof:  a,  a,  bearing- 
surface  of  the  toe;  a,  6,  bearing-surface  of  the  side 
walls  or  mammse;  b  c,  bearing-surface  of  the 
trary,  presents  a  great  quarters;^,  buttress,  or  angle  formed  by  wall  and 
bar;  e,  bar;  /,  sole;  /',  branches  of  the  sole;  g, 
white  line;  it  passes  between  the  sole  and  bars  and 
ends  at  g';  h,  horny  frog;  i,  branches  of  the  frog; 
k,  heels,  bulbs,  or  glomes  of  the  hoof;  I,  median 
lacuna  of  horny  frog.  Between  the  bars  and  the 
horny  frog  lie  the  lateral  lacunse  of  the  frog. 


number  of  horn-leaves 
which  are  spoken  of  col- 
lectively as  the  keraphyl- 
lous  tissue  (Figs.  32,  g^ 
and  35,  f).  The  upper  or  coronary  border  of  the  wall  is  thin 
and  flexible,  and  on  its  inner  aspect  is  the  coronary  groove,  into 
which  fits  the  coronary  band  (Fig.  30,  f).  The  lower  border 
of  the  wall,  called  the  "  bearing-edge  "  or  plantar  border  (Fig. 
31,  a),  is  the  one  to  which  the  horseshoe  is  fastened.  By  divid- 
ing a  hoof  from  before  to  behind  along  its  median  line,  otiter 


52 


HORSESHOEING. 


and  inner  halves  or  walls  are  produced,  and  by  dividing  the 
entire  lower  circumference  of  the  wall  into  five  equal  parts  or 
sections,  a  toe,  two  side  walls  or  mammae,  and  two  quarters 
will  be  exhibited  (Figs.  32  and  33).  In  order  to  designate  these 
regions  of  the  hoof  still  more  accurately,  they  are  spoken  of  as 
outer  and  inner  toes,  quarters,  and  heels. 

The  direction  (slant)  and  length  of  the  ivall  vary  in  oiie 
and  the  same  hoof,  as  well  as 
between  fore  and  hind  hoofs. 
The  portion  of  the  wall  of 
fore  hoofs  is  the  most  slant- 
ing,— that  is,  forms  the  most 
acute  angle  with  the  surface 
of  the  ground, — and  is  also 
the  longest.  Towards  the 
quarters  the  wall  gradually 
■becomes  very  nearly  vertical; 
in  almost  all  hoofs  the  pos- 
,i^  terior  part  of  the  quarters 
slants  doAvnward  and  inward 
towards  the  median  vertical 
~"""\''''  antero-posterior  plane   of  the 

foot.     At  the  same  time  the 

Wall  and  bars  seen  from  below:  o,  toe;  6,    wall,   iu  passiug  back  from  the 
side-wall,  or  mamma;  c,  quarter;  d,  buttress;  ill 

€,  bar;  g,   horn  leaves;  h,  space  occupied  by    toe       tO       the       hCCl,        DCCOmeS 

'°^'  gradually   shorter    in    such    a 

manner  that  the  heights  of  the  toe,  side  walls,  and  quarters 
are  related  to  one  another  about  as  3:2:1  in  front  hoofs 
and  as  4:3:2  in  hind  hoofs.  The  outer  wall  is,  as  a  rule, 
somewhat  more  slanting  than  tlie  inner.  Viemng  a  foot 
in  profile,  the  toe  and  heel  should  be  parallel;  that  is,  the 
line  from  the  hair  to  the  ground  at  the  toe  should  be  parallel 
to  the  line  from  the  hair  to  the  ground  at  the  buttress. 
All    deviations    of    the    wall    from   a   straight   line    (out- 


HORSESHOEING. 


53 


ward  or  inward   bendiugs)  are  to  be  regarded  as  faults  or 
defects. 

The  tliichness  of  the  wall  is  also  varial>le.     In  front  lioofs 
the  wall  is  thickest  at  the  toe, 
and  becomes  gradually  thinner  '^'' 

towards  the  quarters,  while  in 
hind  hoofs,  there  is  very  little 
difference  in  the  thickness  of 
the  wall  of  the  toe,  sides,  and  C- 
qnarters.  The  more  slanting 
half  of  the  hoof  is  always  the 
thiclcer;  thus,  for  example,  the 
outer  wall  of  a  base-^Hde  foot 
is  always  longer  and  more 
oblique  than  the  inner  wall^ 
and  is  also  thicker.  According  to  Mayer,  the  thickness  of  the 
wall  at  the  toe  varies  from  three-  to  five-eighths  of  an  inch,  and 
at  the  quarters  from 
two  to  three  eighths 
of  an  inch.  These 
measurements  are  de- 
pendent upon  the 
size  and  breeding  of 
the  horse. 

The  horn  wall  is 
composed  of  three 
superposed  layers. 
These  from  without 
to  within  are:  (1) 
the  periople,  secreted 
by  tlie  perioplic  band. 
It  is  very  thin, 
glistening,  and  varnish-like  in  appearance,  and  covers  the 
entire  outer  surface  of  the  wall,  except  where  it  has  been 
removed    by    the    rasp,    and    prevents    rapid    evaporation    of 


A  hoof  in  profile;  a,  toe  (one  half);  6,  side 
wall;  c,  quarter. 


Fig.  34. 


Vertical  section  through  the  middle  of  a  hoof,  with  horny 
frog  removed,  to  show  the  position  of  the  bar:  a,  b,  marks 
the  line  at  which  the  wall  bends  forward  and  inward  to- 
wards the  median  line  of  the  foot  to  become  the  bar.  Bar 
runs  forward  and  passes  imperceptibly  into  the  sole  c;  o,  a', 
the  light  shading  shows  the  part  of  the  bar  that  was  in  con- 
tact with  the  horny  frog. 


54  HORSESHOEING. 

moisture  from  the  horn.  (2)  The  middle  or  protective 
layer  (Fig.  35,  d)  is  the  thickest,  strongest,  and  most  im- 
portant of  the  three  layers;  it  forms  the  principal  mass  of 
the  wall,  and  is  developed  or  secreted  by  the  coronary  band, 
which  fits  into  the  coronary  groove.  There  are  in  the  coronary 
groove  a  great  number  of  small,  funnel-shaped  openings  into 
which  project  the  horn-producing  villi  or  papillae  of  the  coro- 

FiG.  35. 


The  outer  wall  of  the  hoof  has  been  removed  by  cutting  vertically  through  the  middle  of 
the  toe,  down  to  the  upper  surface  of  the  sole,  then  horizontally  backward  into  the  quarter, 
and,  finally,  upward  through  the  quarter:  o,  perioplic  horn-band;  h,  coronary  groove;  it 
turns  inward  and  forward  at  c  to  form  the  upper  border  of  the  bar;  d,  surface  of  section  of 
the  wall  at  the  toe;  d',  at  the  quarter;  e,  surface  of  horizontal  section  of  the  wall  near  its 
lower  border;  /,  keraphyllous  layer  of  the  wall;  at  /'  it  turns  forward  and  inward  to  cover 
the  bar;  /",  horny  leaves  standing  free  and  passing  insensibly  into  the  white  horn  of  the 
middle  layer  or  true  wall;  g,  horny  sole;  h,  white  line;  i,  small  horn-spur  in  middle  of  toe; 
k,  part  of  horny  frog  which  is  in  intimate  union  with  the  upper  edge  of  the  bar;  I,  frog-stay 
of  horny  frog;  it  divides  the  trough-Uke  depression  of  the  upper  surface  of  the  frog  into  m, 
the  two  upper  channels  of  the  frog. 

nary  band.     (3)  The  inner  layer  or  keraphyllous  layer  (Fig. 

35,  /)  consists  of  prominent,  parallel  horn-leaves  lying  side  by 
side  over  the  entire  inner  surface  of  the  middle  layer  of  the 
wall,  and  continuing  beyond  the  buttresses  to  the  ends  of  the 
bars  (Fig.  35,  f).  This  layer  of  horn-leaves  (keraphyllous 
layer)  has  in  a  general  way  about  the  same  shape  and  arrange- 
ment as  the  layer  of  fleshy  leaves  (podophyllous  layer)  which 
secretes  it;  for  the  horn-leaves  fit  in  with  the  fleshy  leaves  in 
such  a  way  that  every  fleshy  leaf  is  embraced  by  two  horn- 


HORSESHOEING. 


55 


leaves,  and  every  liom-leaf  by  two  fleshy  leaves  (Fig.  36).  The 
keraphylloiis  layer  and  the  horn  of  the  inmost  part  of  the 
middle  or  protective  layer  are  always  white,  even  in  pigmented 
(colored)  hoofs. 

The  horn  sole  (Fig.  31,  /,  and  Fig.  35,  g)  is  secreted  by 
the  velvety  tissue  of  the  sole.     A  sole  from  which  the  loose 

Fig.  36. 


Cross-section  of  keraphyllous  and  podophyllous  laminse  (horny  and  fleshy  leaves) :  a,  inmost 
part  of  the  solid  wall;  the  horn-tubes  approach  very  close  to  the  horny  leaves;  b,  body  of  the 
podophyllous  membrane;  c,  horny  portion  of  a  horn-leaf  directly  continuous  with  the  middle 
or  principal  layer  of  the  wall;  c',  a  rudimentary  horn-leaf  that  does  not  reach  the  body  of  the 
podophyllous  membrane;  c",  cross-section  of  horny  leaves  from  the  sides  of  which  branch 
many  secondary  leaves  (leaflets)  composed  of  soft  (young)  horn-cells.  These  soft  cellular 
horn-leaflets  dovetail  with  the  podophyllous  or  fleshy  leaflets;  d,  podophyllous  laminse  ex- 
tending from  the  body  of  the  podophyllous  membrane;  d',  podophyllous  laminse  which  have 
branched  in  their  course  to  the  wall,  and  thus  given  rise  to  c',  rudimentary  horn-leaves;  d", 
cross-section  of  podophyllous  leaflets  extending  from  the  sides  of  the  podophyllous  leaves; 
each  two  such  leaflets  secrete  a  keraphyllous  leaflet  between  them;  e,  injected  arterial  vessels. 


flakes  of  old  horn  have  been  removed  is  about  as  thick  as  the 
wall.  It  covers  the  under  surface  of  the  foot,  and  presents 
upon  its  upper  surface  a  convexity  which  exactly  fits  into  the 
concavity  on  the  under  surface  of  the  os  pedis.  This  upper 
surface  is  thickly  covered  by  a  multitude  of  minute  funnel- 
shaped  openings  for  the  reception  of  the  villi  of  the  velvety 
tissue  of  the  sole  (Fig.  37).  The  lower  surface  of  the  sole  is 
more  or  less  concave,  rough,  uneven,  and  often  covered  by  loose 


56 


HORSESHOEING. 


scales  of  dead  horn.  Behind,  the  sole  presents  a  triangular 
opening  whose  borders  lie  partly  in  contact  with  the  horny  frog 
and  partly  with  the  bars.  This  opening  or  re-entering  angle 
divides  the  sole  into  a  tody  (Fig.  31,  /)  and  two  \vings  or 
branches  (Fig.  31,  /').  The  outer  border  of  the  sole  unites 
through  the  medium  of  the  white  line  with  the  lower  part  of 
the  inner  surface  of  the  wall, — that  is,  with  the  keraphyllous 


Fig.  37. 


Vertical  section  of  the  horny  sole  magnified:  a,  Horny  frog,  with  the  posterior  portion  of 
funnel-shaped  openings  which  contain  the  horn-  the  perioplic  horn-band  and  the  periople 
producing  villi  of  the  fleshy  sole;  they  are  of  which  covers  the  quarters  removed  from 
various  sizes;  b,  horn-tubes;  c,  intertubular  the  hoof  as  one  piece  by  maceration:  a, 
jjQPjj  trough-shaped  depression  of  upper  surface, 

which  is  divided  posteriorly  into  the  two 

layer  of  the  wall.       This  white  :!^: t^:^':,T^!^^^ ^^ l^^^f^ 
line  (Figs.  31,  g^  and  35,  h),  of  ZrZi^^V^lZS^lT.i^^^^^^^ 

so  much   importance  to  the  horse-  frog;d,  lateral  surface  of  homy  frog  which, 

.  in  its  upper  part,  adheres  to  the  bar,  but 

Shoer,     is     formed     by     the     horn-  below,  at  d',  lies  free;  e.  point  or  suminlt  of 

1                            1    1         ii                1.1  the  frog;  /,  perioplic  horn-band;  /',  peri- 

leaves,  and  by  those  short  plugs  opie  of  the  quarters, 
of  tubular  horn  which  are  se- 
creted by  the  villi  that  are  always  found  at  the  lower  ends  of 
the  fleshy  leaves.  The  w^hite  line  may  be  said  to  exist  wherever 
the  horn-leaves  can  be  discerned  upon  the  plantar  surface  of 
the  hoof.  It  not  only  passes  around  the  circumference  of  the 
sole  from  heel  to  heel,  but  may  be  followed  forward  from  the 
buttTe'sses  along  the  bars  almost  to  the  summit  of  the  frog. 
The  horn  of  the  white  line  is  soft,  unpigmented  (white),  and 


HORSESHOEING. 


67 


Fig.  39. 


possesses  so  very  little  resistance   (strength)   that  it  is  often 

found  crumbling  or  even  absent  in  places.     The  visible  part 

of  the  white  line  is  usually  of  a  grayish-black  color,  owing  to 

the  working  in  from  below 

of   dirt  and   liquid  manure, 

and  to  staining  by  nist  from 

the  nails.     The  white  line  is 

very     important,     since     it 

serves    as    the    point    from 

which     we     judge     of     the 

thickness    of    the    wall,    and 

because     the     horseshoe     nail         a  homy  frog  cut  vertically  and  lengthwise 

through  its  middle:  a,  upper  surface;  b,  frog- 
Should     penetrate     it.  stay;  c,  median  lacuna  of  frog,  which  at  c',  is 

_,,        _,  ,  -T-<*  o^       7       overlaid  with  superposed  layers  of  horn. 

The  Frog    (Figs.   31,   h, 
35,  k,  I,  38  and  39),  secreted  by  the  velvety  tissue  covering 
the   plantar   cushion    and    presenting   almost   the    same    form 
as  tlie  latter,  lies  as  a  wedge  between  the  bars  and  between 

Fig.  40. 


Longitudinal  section  of  the  wall  magnified.  The  dark  stripes  parallel  and  close  together 
are  horn-tubes;  the  lighter  surface  between  the  tubes  represents  the  intertubular  horn. 
Notice  that  the  horn-tubes  are  of  various  diameters.  The  space  between  a  and  b  represents 
the  small  tubes  of  the  outer,  darker  horn  of  the  principal  (middle)  layer  of  the  wall;  the  space 
between  b  and  c  the  lighter,  inner  horn  of  the  wall;  c,  d,  the  horn  separating  the  wall  proper 
froen  the  horny  leaves;  d,  e,  the  horny  leaves  (keraphyllous  tissue),  on  which  can  be  seen  fine, 
parallel,  vertical  stripes;  in  the  horn-leaf  at  /,  /',  are  seen  fissures  passing  obliquely  upward 
and  outward  towards  the  wall. 


the  edges  of  the  sole  just  in  front  of  the  bars,  with  both  of 
which  structures  it  is  intimately  united.  Its  horn  is  quite 
soft   and  very   elastic.      The  median  lacuna  or  cleft  of  the 


58  HORSESHOEING. 

frog  (Fig.  31,  I)   divides  it  into  two  branches   (Fig.  31,  i), 

which,  pass  backward  and  outward  into  the  hornj  bulbs  (Fig. 

31,  k).  In  front  of  the  median  lacuna  the  two  branches 
unite  to  form  the  body  of  the  frog 
Fig.  41.    ^  (j^ig^  31^  J^^^  ^l^i^h  ends  in  a  point, 

designated  the  point,  apex,  or  summit 
of  the  frog.  On  the  upper  surface  of 
the  frog,  directly  over  the  median  cleft 
of  the  lower  surface,  there  is  a  small 
projection  called  the  frog-stay  (Figs.  35, 
Z,  38  and  39,  h),  which  fits  into  the 
median  cleft  of  the  plantar  cushion. 
Besides,  the  upper  surface  of  the  frog 
Cross-section  of  the  wall,  mag-  shows  many  miuutc  opcuijigs,   similar 

f^h't/h  ''°'°-*"^^'=  ^'  ''^*^'-  to  but  smaller  than  those  of  the  sole 

tubular  horn. 

and  coronary  groove,  for  the  reception 
of  villi.  In  unshod  hoofs  the  frog,  sole,  bars,  and  bearing-edge 
of  the  wall  are  on  a  level ;  that  is,  the  plantar  surface  of  such 
hoofs  is  perfectly  flat. 

The  minute  structure  of  the  horn  can  scarcely  be  considered  in  de- 
tail in  an  elementary  treatise  such  as  this  is.  However,  a  few  of  the 
most  important  facts  are  as  follows: 

If  we  carefully  examine  a  transverse  section  of  the  horn  of  the 
wall  (Fig.  41),  sole,  or  frog,  we  will  see  with  the  naked  eye,  though 
much  better  with  a  magnifying  glass,  many  minute  points  quite  close 
to  one  another,  and  greatly  resembling  the  small  openings  which  we 
have  seen  in  the  coronary  groove  of  the  wall  and  on  the  upper  surface 
of  the  horny  sole  and  frog.  If,  now,  we  examine  a  longitudinal  sec- 
tion of  the  wall  (Fig.  40)  or  sole,  we  will  see  a  number  of  fine,  dark 
stripes  which  are  straight,  parallel,  quite  close  to  one  another,  of  dif- 
ferent widths,  and  which  are  separated  by  bands  of  lighter  horn  also 
of  different  widths.  A  thin  section  or  slice  of  the  wall  taken  at  right 
angles  to  the  direction  of  these  dark  lines  (Fig.  41)  shows  us  that  the 
minute  points  that  are  visible  to  the  naked  eye,  when  held  up  to  the 
light  or  moderately  magnified,  prove  to  be  small  opening's  (Fig.  41,  a). 
Since  these  openings,  shown  in  Fig.  41,  represent  the  dark  lines  shown 
in  Fig.  40,  because  an  opening  is  found  wherever  there  is  a  dark  line, 
we  must  regard  all  dark  lines  seen  in  longitudinal  sections  of  wall, 


HORSESHOEING.  59 

sole,  and  frog  as  hollow  cylinders  or  tubes,  though  they  are  not  always 
hollow,  but  are  often  filled  with  loosely  adjusted,  crumbling,  broken- 
down  horn-cells.  The  dark  edges  of  the  openings  (a)  consist  of  thick 
layei-s  of  horn-cells  (tube-walls).  The  entire  structure  is  called  a 
horn-tube,  and  the  lighter-colored  masses  of  horn  (Fig.  41,  6)  between 
the  tubes  are  known  as  intertubular  horn. 

With  the  exception  of  the  homy  leaves  of  the  wall  and 
bars,  all  the  horn  of  the  hoof  is  composed  of  hom-tubes  and 
intertubular  horn. 

The  lioni-tubes  of  the  wall,  sole,  and  frog  always  run  down- 
ward and  forward  parallel  to  the  direction  of  the  wall  at  the 
toe, — that  is,  in  a  direction  parallel  with  the  inclination  of  the 
hoof  as  a  whole.  Although  the' wall,  sole,  and  frog  differ  from 
one  another  considerably  vnth  respect  to  the  size  and  numl^er 
of  the  hom-tubes,  the  quality  of  the  intertubular  horn,  and  the 
thickness  and  strength  of  the  horn-cells,  these  differences  are 
only  of  subordinate  interest  or  importance  to  the  horseshoer; 
but  he  who  desires  to  learn  more  of  this  matter  is  referred  to 
the  work  of  Leisering  &  Hartmann,  "  Der  Fuss  des  Pferdes  in 
Riicksicht  auf  Bau,  Verrichtungen  und  Hufljesehlag,"  eighth 
edition,  Dresden,  1893.  This  book  also  treats  of  the  variations 
in  the  quality  of  hoofs,  which  is  very  important  for  the  prac- 
tical horseshoer  to  know.  It,  furthermore,  considers  the  solidity 
and  strength  of  the  horn  of  the  different  parts  of  the  hoof. 

With  respect  to  solidity,  two  kinds  of  horn  are  distinguished, 
— namely,  hard  and  soft  horn.  The  periople,  the  white  line, 
and  the  frog  are  soft  horn  structures ;  the  middle  layer  of  the 
wall  and  the  sole  are  hard  or  solid  horn.  The  wall,  however, 
is  somewhat  harder  and  more  tenacious  than  the  sole,  for  the 
latter  passes  off  in  more  or  less  large  flakes  (exfoliates)  or 
crumbles  away  on  its  lower  surface,  at  least  in  shod  feet,  while 
no  such  spontaneous  shortening  occurs  in  the  wall. 

Soft  horn  differs  from  hard  horn  in  that  its  horn-cells  never 
become  hard  and  horn-like.  It  is  very  elastic,  absorbs  water 
quickly,  and  as  readily  dries  out  and  becomes  very  hard  and 


60 


HORSESHOEING. 


Vertical  section  through  middle  of  a  forefoot,  the  skin  and  pododerm  being  in  red.  (In 
the  figure  the  direction  of  both  long  and  short  pasterns,  B  and  D,  is  too  nearly  vertical — too 
steep).  A,  metacarpal  bone  (cannon);  B,  os  suffraginis  (long  pastern);  C,  inner  sesamoid 
bone  (to  render  it  visible  a  portion  of  the  intersesamoid  ligament  was  removed) ;  D,  os  coro- 
nse  (short  pastern) ;  E,  os  pedis  (foot-bone) ;  F,  navicular  bone ;  a,  extensor  tendon ;  6,  suspen- 
sory ligament  of  the  fetlock;  b',  superficial  inferior  sesamoid  ligament;  c,  perforatus  tendon 
or  flexor  of  the  os  coronae;  c',  ring  passing  forward  from  this  tendon  and  encircling  the  per- 
forans  tendon;  d,  perforans  tendon;  e,  capsular  ligament  of  fetlock-joint;/,  capsular  ligament 
of  coronary  joint;  g,  g',  capsular  ligament  of  pedal  joint;  h,  synovial  sheath  of  the  perfo- 
rans tendon;  !,  plantar  cushion  and  fleshy  frog;  i',  bulbs  or  glomes  of  plantar  cushion;  Vin- 
dicates the  lowest  point  reached  by  the  plantar  cushion,  which  in  the  figure  is  hidden  below 
by  the  frog-stay  of  the  horny  frog;  k,  coronary  band  (red);  /,  podophyllous  tissue  (red);  m, 
velvety  tissue  of  the  sole  (red) ;  n,  velvety  tissue  of  fleshy  frog  (red) ;  o,  wall;  p,  sole;  q,  frog; 
q",  the  inner  half  of  the  frog-stay  which  reposes  in  the  median  lacuna  of  the  fleshy  frog;  s, 
hair-skin  (red). 


HORSESHOEING. 


61 


brittle  and  easily  fissured  and  chapped.  With  respect  to  quality, 
we  distinguish  good  and  bad  horn;  the  former  is  fine  and 
tenacious  (tough),  the  latter  coarse  and  either  soft  and  crumb- 
ling or  hard  and  brittle.     If  not  dried  out,  all  horn  is  elastic, 

Fig.  43. 


Right  forefoot  viewed  from  the  side:  A,  lower  end  of  the  cannon;  B,  fetlock-joint;  C, 
long  pastern;  D,  coronet;  E,  hoof;  F,  heel;  F',  inner  heel;  G,  foot-lock  covering  the  ergot. 

though  soft  horn  is  more  elastic  than  hard.  All  honi  is  a  poo7' 
conductor  of  heat. 

The  relative  positions  of  the  various  parts  of  the  foot  are 
shown  in  Fig.  42. 

Fig.  43  represents  the  exterior  of  a  well-formed  foot. 


CHAPTER   II. 


THE  FOOT  IN  ITS  RELATION  TO  THE  ENTIRE  LIMB. 


As  there  are  well-formed  and  badly  foraied  bodies,  so  there 
are  well-formed  and  badly  formed  limbs  and  hoofs.     The  form 
of  the  hoof  depends  upon  the  position  of  the  limb.     A  straight 
limb  of  normal  direction  possesses,  as  a 
Fig.  44.  ^le,    a   regular  hoof,   while   an  oblique 

or  crooked  limb  is  accompanied  by  an 
irregidar  or  oblique  hoof.  Hence,  it  is 
necessary,  before  discussing  the  vari- 
ous forms  of  the  hoof,  to  consider  briefly 
the  various  positions  that  may  be 
assumed  by  the  limbs.  In  this  discus- 
sion we  shall  deal  with  the  living  horse. 

A.  Standing  Positions  of  the  Limbs. 

The  position  of  a  limb  depends 
upon  the  varying  lengths  of  its  com- 
ponent bones  and  tlie  angles  at  which 
they  meet  one  another.  To  judge  the 
standing  position  of  a  fore-limb  one 
must  stand  i7i  front  of  the  horse;  to 
judge  a  hind  limb,  stand  behind  the 
horse ;  the  backward  or  forward  devia- 
/  ft  \  tions    of    both    front    and    hind    limbs 

2=4        Jti|  are  judged  by  standing  at  the  side.     But 

'   I  '       '  '  ' —       a  horse   does   not   always   move   as   his 

Normal    (regular)    position   of,-,.  ...  IJIJ  x 

fore-limbs.  Standing    positiou    would    lead    one    to 

suspect;  standing  and  moving  are 
different.  Therefore,  in  order  to  arrive  at  a  proper  judgment, 
one  must  observe  the  limbs  both  at  rest  and  in  motion. 

(a)  The  position  of  a  limb  viewed  from  in  front  is  normal 
62 


HORSESHOEING. 


63 


or  straight  (Fig.  4-1)  when  it  stands  vertical  or  perpendicnlar. 
A  plumb-line  dropped  from  the  point  of  the  shoulder  (middle  of 
the  scapulo-hnmeral  articulation)  should  pass  down  the  middle 
line  of  the  limb,  dividing  it  into  inner  and  outer  halves  of 
equal  width,  and  meeting  the  ground  at  the  middle  of  the  toe. 
In  the  base-wide  standing  position  (Fig.  45)  the  plumb-line 
falls  to  the  inner  side  of  the  limb;  the  limb  extends  obliquely 
downward  and  outward.     To  this  class  belong  also  the  hiee- 


Fig.  45. 

1 1  ;f- 

Pi 

if 

I 

1 

1 

i 

Fig.  46 


Base-wide  Toe- wide  Toe-narrow     ("pigeon 

toed") 

narrow  (knock-kneed)  position,  in  which  the  knees  are  too  close 
together,  while  the  feet  stand  wide  apart,  and  the  toe-wide 
position  (splay-footed,  Fig.  46)  in  which  the  toes  point  ob- 
liquely forward  and  outward.  In  base-wide  positions  either 
the  entire  limb  extends  downward  and  outward  or  the  foot  alone 
is  turned  outward. 

The  base  narrow  position  is  frequently  obsei'\''ed  in  horses 
with  veiy  wide  breasts.  The  limbs  run  do\vnward  and  inward, 
a  plumb-line  dropped  from  the  point  of  the  shoulder  falling  to 
the  outer  side  of  the  leg  and  foot.    A  special  form  of  the  base- 


64 


HORSESHOEING. 


narrow  position  is  the  toe-narrow  or  yigeon-toed  position  (Fig. 
47).  In  some  instances  the  legs  are  straight  and  perpendicular 
do^^^l  to  the  fetlock,  while  from  there  to  the  ground  the  phal- 
anges incline  obliquely  inward.  Another  form  is  the  Jcnee-wide 
or  bandy-legged  position,  in  which  the  knees  are  placed  too  far 


Fig.  48. 


Fig.  49. 


Normal  (regular)  fore-limb  in  profile. 


Normal  (regular  hind  limb  in  profile. 


apart,  while  the  cannons  and  phalanges  incline  downward  and 
inward. 

The  position  of  a  fore-limb  viewed  in  profile  is  regular 
or  normal  (Fig.  48)  when  a  perpendicular  line  dropped  from 
the  tuberosity  of  the  acromian  spine  (point  of  union  of  the 
upper  and  middle   thirds  of  the   scapula  or  shoulder  blade) 


HORSESHOEING. 


65 


divides  the  leg  from  the  elbow  to  the  fetlock  into  anterior  and 
posterior  halves  of  equal  width,  and  touches  the  gi-ound  imme- 
diately back  of  the  bulbs  of  the  heel.     A  perpendicular  line 


Fig.  50. 


Fig.  51. 


Fig.  52. 


Camped  in  front. 


Acute-angled  foot  (low-jointed) . 


dropped  from  the  point  of  union  of  the  middle  and  lower  thirds 
of  the  scapula  (shoulder  blade)  will  cut  the  humerus  into 
halves,  and  meet  the  ground  between  the  toe  and  the  heel.* 

*  In  station  of  rest,  the  normal  position  of  a  fore-leg,  as  seen  from 
the  side,  is  somewhat  different.  The  station  of  rest  is  the  position  that 
is  maintained  with  the  least  possible  muscular  effort.  With  gradual 
muscular  I'elaxation  the  head  and  neck  sink  to  a  point  somewhat  below 
the  line  of  the  back,  the  top  of  the  shoulder  blade  sinks  a  little,  and 
the  shoulder  and  elbow  joints  move  foi-ward  till  the  centre  of  the 
elbow  joint  is  directly  above  the  ground-surface  of  the  hoof.  There- 
fore, when  a  horse  at  rest  stands  firmly  on  all  four  feet,  the  fore-leg 
\"iewed  from  the  side,  has  a  normal  (regular)  direction,  when  a  per~ 
•pendicular  line  dropped  from  the  tuberosity  of  the  acromian  spine 
passes  through  the  middle  of  the  elbow  joint  and  meets  the  ground 
near  the  middle  of  the  hoof, 
5 


66 


HORSESHOEING. 


Til©  foot-axis  (line  of  direction  of  the  three  phalanges)  and 
the  wall  at  the  toe  form  an  angle  of  from  forty-five  to  fifty 
degrees  with  the  horizontal  ground-surface. 

From  this  normal  or  regular  standing  position,  there  are 
deviations  forward  as  well  as  backward. 

Forward  Deviations. — ''  Standing  in  front  "  or  "  camped 
in  front  "  (Fig.  50)  is  that  position  in  which  the  entire  leg 
from  the  body  to  the  ground  is  placed  too  far  forward.     Sheep- 


FiG.  53. 


Fig.  54. 


Standing  under. 


Knee-sprung. 


hneed  (Fig.  51)  is  that  position  in  which  the  forward  deviation 
is  from  the  knee  downward,  the  knee  being  placed  too  far  under 
the  body.  "  Weak- jointed/'  "  low-jointed"  or  "  acute-angled " 
(Fig.  52)  is  that  position  in  which  the  limbs  are  perpendicular 
and  straight  down  as  far  as  the  fetlock- joint,  but  the  feet  are 
placed  too  far  in  front. 

Backward  Deviations. — Standing  under  in  front  (Fig.  53) 
is  that  deviation  in  which  the  entire  leg  from  the  elbow  down 
is  placed  back  of  the  perpendicular  line  and,  therefore,  too  far 


HORSESHOEING. 


67 


Fig.  55. 


under  the  body.  Wlien  this  deviation  affects  only  the  cannon 
bone,  the  horse  stands  bent  forward  at  the  knees, — a  condition 
known  as  "  goat-hneed,"  "  hu-ck-hneed"  "  over  in  the  knees" 
or,  more  commonly,  "knee-sprung"  (Fig.  54).  When  the 
backward  deviation  is  only  from  the  fet- 
lock do^vn,  the  animal  is  said  to  stand  up- 
right or  "straight  in  the  fetlock" 

(b)  A  hind  leg  viewed  from  behind 
is  said  to  be  regular  or  straight  (Fig.  55) 
when  a  perpendicular  line  dropped  from 

Fig.  57. 


Normal  (regular)  position      Base-wide    (cow    hocked), 
viewed  from  behind. 


Base-narrow. 


the  tuberosity  of  the  ischium  (see  Fig.  1,  9'')  divides  the  entire 
limb  into  inner  and  outer  halves  of  equal  width  and  touches 
the  groimd  opposite  the  median  lacuna  of  the  frog.  Seen  from 
the  side,  this  line  just  touches  the  point  of  the  hock  and,  passing 
down  at  some  distance  from  the  flexor  tendons,  meets  the  ground 


68 


HORSESHOEING. 


Fig.  58. 


considerably  back  of  the  heels.  A  perpendicular  line  dropped 
from  the  hip-joint  should  pass  through  the  foot,  meeting  the 
ground  half-way  between  the  point  of  the  toe  and  the  heel 
(Fig.  49).  There  are  base-wide,  base-narrow,  toe-wide,  and 
toe-narrow  deviations  in  the  hind  limbs  as  in  the  fore-limbs. 

The  hind  limbs  are  hase-wide  when  they,  either  as  a  whole 
or  in  part,  deviate  outward  from  the  normal.  The  "  cow- 
hoched"  position  (Fig.  56)  is  an  example  of  the  base-wide;  in 
this  case  the  points  of  the  hocks  are  too 
close  and  turn  towards  each  other,  while 
the  feet  are  widely  separated  and  the 
toes  turned  outward.  Base-narrow  is 
that  position  of  the  hind  legs  in  which 
either  the  entire  leg  deviates  to  the  inner 
side  of  the  perpendicular  (Fig.  57),  or 
the  leg  is  about  perpendicular  down  as 
far  as  the  hock,  but  below  this  joint  runs 
downward  and  inward  (Fig.  58).  In  this 
latter  case  the  hocks  may  be  too  far  apart, 
the  leg  is  bent  outward  at  the  hock  and 
the  animal  is  termed  "  handy-legged," 
"  how-legged." 

Viewing  a  hind  limb  from  the  side, 
it  may  be  observed  to  deviate  either 
forward  or  backward  from  the  normal. 
Among  forward  deviations  is  the  so- 
called  "  sahre-leg  "  or  "  sicMe-hoch  "  (Fig. 
59),  in  which  the  hock-joint  is  too  much  flexed,  the  foot  placed 
too  far  forward  under  the  body,  and  the  fetlock  too  slanting. 
In  the  position  known  as  "cammed  hehind"  (Fig.  60)  the 
leg  is  behind  the  body  and  the  pastern  is  too  upright,  too  nearly 
vertical. 

It  is  possible  for  each  limb  of  the  same  horse  to  assume  a 
different  direction.  It  more  often  happens  that  if  the  fore- 
limbs  are  base-wide  the  hind  limbs  are  ba'se-narrow,  or  vice 


Base-narrow  position  of  hind 
limbs    (bandy-legged). 


HORSESHOEING. 


versa.  While  there  are  some  other  deviations  that  differ 
somewhat  from  those  already  described,  they  are  of  less  im- 
portance to  the  horseshoer. 

B.  Forms  of  Feet,  Viewed  from  in  Front,  from  Behind,  and  in 
Profile. 

In  all  the  various  positions  of  the  limbs  we  find  the  feet  in 
one  of  the  following  three  forms,,  or  very  closely  approaching  one 
of  them.   By  means  of  a  proper  knowledge  of  these  three  forms, 


Fig.  59. 


Fig.  60. 


Sabre-legged  or  sickle-hocked. 


Camped  behind. 


the  judging  of  the  form,  flight  of  the  foot  in  travelling,  and 
preparation  of  the  hoof  for  the  shoe,  as  well  as  the  choice  of 
the  length  of  the  shoe,  are  regulated,  facilitated,  and  simplified. 
Whether  a  horse's  feet  be  observed  from  in  front  or  from 
behind,  their  form  corresponds  to,  or  at  least  resembles,  either 
that  of  the  regular  position  (Figs.  61  and  62),  the  base-wide 
or  toe-wide  position  (Figs.  63  and  64),  or  the  base-narrow  or 
toe-narrow  position  (Figs.  65  and  66). 


70 


HORSESHOEING. 


By  the  direction  of  the  foot-axis — that  is,  an  imaginary 
line  passing  through  the  long  axis  of  the  three  phalangeal  bones 
(Figs.  61,  65,  67,  68  and  69) — we  determine  whether  or  not 
the  hoof  and  pastern  stand  in  proper  mutual  relation. 


Fig.  61. 


Fig.  62. 


A  pair  of  front  feet  of  regular  position  viewed  from  in  front  and  from  behind. 

In  the  regular  standing  position   (Figs.    61  and   62)   the 
foot-axis  runs  straight  downward  and  forward,   in  the  base- 


FiG.  63. 


Fig.  64. 


A  pair  of  feet  of  the  base-wide  (toe-wide)   position  seen  from  in  front  and  from  behind. 

wide  position  (Figs.  63  and  64)  it  runs  obliquely  downward 
and  outward,  and  in  the  base-narrow  position  (Figs.  65  and 
66)  it  runs  obliquely  downward  and  inward. 

Viewing  the  foot  from  the  side,  we  distinguish  the  regular 


HORSESHOEING. 


71 


(normal)     position    (Fig.    68),    and    designate    all    forward 
deviations  as  acute-angled  (long  toe  and  low  heel,  Fig.  67),  and 


Fig.  65. 


A  pair  of  feet  of  the  base-narrow  (toe-narrow)  position  seen  from  in  front  and  from  behind. 

all  deviations  backward  from  the  regular  position  as  upright 
(short  toe  and  high  heel,  Fig.  69),  steep-toed,  or  stumpy. 

When  the  body-weight  is  uniformly  distributed  over  all  four 


Fig.  67. 


Fig.  68. 


Fig.  69. 


An  acute-angled  hoof. 


A  normal-angled  hoof. 


An  upright   ("stumpy") 
hoof. 


limbs,  the  foot-axis  should  be  straight  (Figs.  67  and  69),  not 
"  broken  "  (bent)  ;  the  long  pastern,  wall  at  the  toe,  and  foot- 
axis  should  have  the  same  slant. 


72  HORSESHOEING. 

A  peculiar  form  of  foot  is  the  so-called  hear-foot  (Fig.  70), 
in  which  the  foot-axis,  viewed  from  the  side,  is  broken  strongly 
forward  at  the  coronet.  The  wall  at  the  toe  stands  much 
steeper  than  the  long  pastern  and  is  more  or  less  convex;  in 
other  words,  a  low-jointed,  sloping  pastern  is  attached  to  an 
upright  hoof.  Such  a  foot  is  sometimes  improperly  called  a 
"  clubfoot." 

C.  Lines  of  Flight  of  Hoofs  in  Motion. 

If  we  observe  horses  moving  unrestrained  over  level  ground, 
we  will  notice  differences  in  the  carriage  of  the  feet.  Viewed 
from  in  front,  or  from  behind,  in  the  regular  standing  posi- 
tion of  the  limbs  the  hoofs  are  carried  forward  in  a  straight 
direction^ — that  is,  in  a  line  parallel  with  the  median  line  of 
the  body  (Eig.  Yl).  The  toes  likewise  point -straight  forward; 
the  hoofs  alight  properly  (flat)  on  the  ground.  If  the  horse 
stands  hase-wide,  the  hoof  is  carried  in  a 
circle;  from  its  position,  which  is  behind 
and  well  out  from  the  median  line,  the 
hoof  passes  first  forward  and  inward  until 
it  is  close  to  the  supporting  leg,  and  then 
outward  to  the  ground  (Eig.  72),  where 
the  shock  is  received  principally  upon  the 
outer  toe.  -The  toes  point  either  directly 
forward,  as  in  the  regular  standing  posi- 
tion (Eig.  72),  or  forward  and  outward  as 

The  "bear-foot."  .        .  "       ./  .,.  .^.        ^_,         -^        , 

m  the  toe-wide  position  (Fig.  73).  In  the 
toe-wide  position  the  hoof  in  its  flight  may  cross  the  median  line. 

Exactly  the  reverse  is  true  of  the  horse  that  stands  hase- 
nmrow;  in  this  case  the  hoof  is  moved  in  a  circle  whose  con- 
vexity is  outward, — ^that  is,  the  hoof  from  its  position  behind, 
and  close  to  the  median  line,  is  carried  forward  and  outward 
and  then  inward  to  the  ground  (Figs.  74  and  75). 

Viewed  from  the  side,  the  line  of  flight  of  a  hoof  is  deter- 
mined largely  by  the  obliquity  (slant)  of  the  foot-axis. 


HORSESHOEING. 


73 


1.  With  a  straight  foot  axis  of  normal  slant  (45°-50°, 
Eig.  76,  A),  the  hoof  follows  the  arc  of  a  circle  and  reaches  its 
highest  point  when  directly  above  the  supporting  hoof,  i.e.,  when 
half-way  in  the  stride. 

2,  With  a  straight,  but  acute-angled  foot-axis  (less  than 
45°,  Eig.  76,  B),  the  hoof  rises  rapidh 


Fig.  71. 

6 


Fig.  72. 


Fig.  73. 


Fig.  74. 


Fig.  75. 


6 


(}) 


0 


© 


Q 


O 


Q 


Q' 


0 


Q-' 


0 


(i) 


-Q 


0 


P    I 


Q 


Q 


©  i 


q; 


point  before  it  has  completed  the  first  half  of  the  stride,  i.e.,  be- 
fore it  has  passed  the  supporting  hoof,  and  descending  gradually 
in  a  long  cur^-e  alights  easily  on  tlie  ground. 

3.  With  a  straight,  but  upright  foot-axis  (55°  or  more, 
Fig.  76,  C),  the  hoof  rises  slowly,  reaches  its  highest  point  in 
front  of  the  supporting  hoof,  from  which  point  it  descends 
rapidly.     The  gait  is  "  choppy,"  and  in  the  saddle  horse  un- 


74 


HORSESHOEING. 


pleasant  for  the  rider.  The  length  and  the  height  of  the 
are  greatest  in  acute-angled  feet;  least  in  upright  feet.  Further- 
more, length  and  height  of  stride  are  in  a  measure  dependent 
on  breeding,  training,  condition  of  the  legs  (whether  stiffened 
by  use  or  disease),  length  of  the  hoof  and  the  weight  of  the  shoe. 


Fig.  76. 


-f— J- 


^ 


<'^-.. 


.-r-. 


zri 


ci 


/-r-J 


Flight  of  the  hoof  as  seen  from  the  side:  A,  flight  of  a  regular  hoof;  B,  flight  of  an  acute- 
angled  hoof;  C,  flight  of  an  upright  hoof. 

Many  deviations  in  the  line  of  flight  of  hoofs  and  in  the 
manner  in  which  they  are  set  to  the  ground  occur ;  for  example, 
horses  heavily  burdened  or  pulling  heavy  loads,  and,  therefore, 
not  having  free  use  of  their  limbs,  project  their  limbs  irregu- 


HORSESHOEING.  75 

larly  and  meet  the  ground  first  with  the  toe;  however,  careful 
observation  will  detect  the  presence  of  one  or  the  other  of  these 
lines  of  flight  of  the  foot.  Irregular  carriage  of  the  feet  renders 
a  horse  unsuitable  for  general  purposes  only  when  it  is  very 
pronounced,  in  which  case  certain  troublesome  conditions,  such 
as  interfering  and  disease  of  joints,  are  of  frequent  occurrence. 

D.  The  Influence  of  Weight  in  the  Shoe  or  Otherwise  Attached 
to  the  Hoof,  in  Altering  the  Flight  of  the  Hoof. 

There  is  nothing  mysterious  in  the  effect  of  weight  upon 
the  flight  of  the  feet.  On  the  contrary,  the  lines  of  flight  are 
determined  (as  shown  in  pages  Y2-74,  Figs.  71-76),  first,  by 
the  relation  of  the  transverse  axes  of  the  hinge-joints  of  tJie 
leg  and  foot  to  the  line  of  progression  (median  line)  ;  second, 
by  the  length  and  obliquity  of  the  hoof  and  pastern ;  third,  by 
the  height  and  length  of  stride  which  is  natural  to  each  in- 
dividual. 

Weight  induces  higher  action  and  a  longer  stride.  Inertia 
increases  with  the  weight.  A  heavy  shoe  cannot  be  snatched 
from  the  ground  as  quickly  as  a  light  one,  but  when  moving 
forward  at  a  given  velocity  its  greater  momentum  ( momentum = 
mass  (wt)  X  velocity  :  m  =  wt  X  v)  carries  the  foot  farther 
forward  than  does  the  lighter  shoe.  Thus,  the  heavier  shoe, 
or  M^eight  attached  to  the  hoof,  lengthens  the  stride  at  both  ends. 
The  farther  from  the  centre  of  rotation  of  the  scapula  the 
weight  is  placed,  i.e.,  the  nearer  to  the  toe  it  is  placed,  the 
greater  the  muscular  effort  required  to  start  it  and  to  stop  it. 

Height  of  action,  though  largely  the  result  of  breeding, 
temperament,  and  the  exhilaration  that  accompanies  perfect 
health  and  entire  absence  of  muscular  fatigue,  is  to  a  certain 
extent  influenced  by  the  inclination  of  the  pastern  and  toe  to 
the  camion.  The  acute-angled  foot,  in  the  folding  of  the  leg 
during  the  first  half  of  the  stride,  moves  through  a  longer  arc 
of  a  circle  whose  centre  is  the  fetlock  joint  than  does  the  normal 
or  the  upright  foot ;  rises  more  rapidly  and  to  a  higher  point. 


76 


HORSESHOEING. 


(See  Fig.  76,  B.)  When  the  momentum  of  a  foot  moving 
rapidly  and  abruptly  upward  is  increased  by  weight  the  result 
is  extreme  and  even  exaggerated  flexion  of  all  joints  of  the  leg, 
and  by  allowing  the  hoof  to  grow  long  the  flexion  is  still  further 
increased.  In  the  show  ring,  harness  horses  with  fair  natural 
action  may  be  made  to  "  climb  "  by  shoes  weighing  from  thirty 
to  sixty  ounces  upon  hoofs  an  inch  or  more  longer  than  normal. 
The  leverage  of  a  heavy  shoe  on  a  long  hoof  is  excessive,  fatigu- 
ing and  most  injurious  to  ligament,  tendon  and  muscle.  The 
action,  while  high,  is  labored,  poundmg  and  altogether  inelegant. 


Fig.  77. 


Fig.  78. 


A  40  oz.  right  front  shoe  (hoof-sur- 
face) to  increase  knee-action  in  a  high 
acting  harness  horse.  For  show-pur- 
poses only. 


The  same  seen  from  the  ground  surface  in  pro- 
file: a,  bevel  from  inner  border  of  the  web  to 
outer  border:  b,  ends  of  the  branches  of  full 
thickness  from  outer  to  inner  border. 


In  the  training  of  trotters  weight  is  often  used  to  increase 
the  length  of  the  stride,  or  to  cause  a  higher  folding  of  a  front 
foot,  in  order  to  prevent  "  scalping  "  or  "  speedy-cut."  As 
soon  as  the  new  gait  becomes  a  fixed  habit  the  weight  should  be 
gradually  lessened.  Weight  is  carried  with  less  fatigue  at  a 
trot  than  at  a  pace,  or  at  a  gallop.     It  therefore  steadies  a 


trotter  that  is  inclined  to  pace,  or  "  break  "  into  a 


The  in- 


creased momentum  of  the  weighted  hoof  makes  for  rhythm  of 
movement,  and  increases  the  difficulty  of  skipping,  dwelling,  or 
mixing  gaits. 


HORSESHOEING.  77 

In  the  hose-wide  (toe-mde)  and  hose-narrow  (toe-narrow) 
stondiiig  positions,  the  flight  of  the  hoofs,  as  seen  from  in  front 
or  behind,  is  not  straight  forward,  i.e.,  parallel  to  the  line  of 
progression  of  the  body,  but  in  arcs  of  circles.  (See  Figs.  72-75, 
p.  73.)  In  these  cases,  increasing  the  weight  of  the  hoofs,  by 
increasing  the  momentum,  must  of  necessity  increase  the 
tendency  of  the  hoofs  to  move  off  at  a  tangent  to  the  curves 
which  they  describe.  In  other  words,  weight  increases  the 
centrifugal  force  of  a  body  moving  in  a  curve.  The  outward 
swing  of  the  hoofs  of  a  base-narrow  horse  (paddling),  and  the 
inward  swing  of  a  base-wide  horse  (interfering),  are  made 
more  pronounced  hy  adding  weight  to  any  part  of  the  hoof. 
The  centrifugal  force  is  greatest  in  base-wide  feet  when  the 
weight  is  on  the  medial,  or  inner  side  of  the  hoof;  in  base- 
narrow  feet  when  it  is  on  the  lateral  or  outer  side. 

A  side  weight,  or  side  weight  shoe  is  often  of  service  in  a 
crossfiring  pacer.  This  animal  usually  stands  base-narrow  (toe- 
narrow)  behind,  and  in  motion  his  hind  hoofs  describe  a  cun'e 
at  first  forward  and  outward  and  then  inward  till  contact  is 
made  with  the  diagonal  hoof  or  leg.  The  added  weight  (placed 
on  the  outer  side)  by  increasing  the  centrifugal  force  caiTies  the 
hoof  just  enough  farther  from  the  centre  around  which  the  hoof 
swings  to  prevent  contact.     (See  cross-firing,  p.  138.) 

Finally,  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  weight  is  alwoys 
weight;  that  it  cids  speed  and  devours  endurance. 

E.  Forms  of  Hoofs. 

A  front  hoof  of  the  regular  standing  position  (Fig.  79). 
The  inner  and  outer  walls  differ  but  little  in  direction  and 
thickness.  The  outer  wall  is  a  little  thicker  and  somewhat 
more  slanting  than  the  inner  (see  Figs.  61  and  62),  and  its 
outer  circumference  describes  a  larger  arc  of  a  circle, — that 
is,  is  more  curved,  as  can  be  seen  both  at  its  plantar  border  and 
at  the  coronet.  The  length  of  the  quarter  in  relation  to  the 
length  or  height  of  the  side  wall  and  toe  is  about  as  1:2:3. 


78 


HORSESHOEING. 


The  toe  forms  an  angle  with  the  ground  of  forty-five  to  fifty 
degrees  (see  Fig.  68).  The  direction  of  the  wall  at  the  toe, 
viewed  from  the  side,  should  be  parallel  with  the  direction  of 
the  long  pastern. 

A  hoof  of  the  hase-wide  position  (Fig.  80)  is  always  awry, 

because  the  outer  wall  is 
naturally  somewhat  longer 
and  decidedly  more  slant- 
ing than  the  inner  (see  Figs. 
63  and  64).  The  plantar 
border  of  the  outer  wall 
describes  a  large  arc,  whose 
sharpest  curvature  is  where 
the  side  wall  passes  into 
the  quarter.  The  plantar 
border  of  the  inner  wall  is 
straighter  (less  curved)  ; 
the  outer  half  of  the  ground 
surface  (sole)  of  the  hoof 
is,  therefore,  wider  than  the 
inner.  So  long  as  the  hoof 
is  healthy,  both  branches  of 

Right   fore-hoof    of   the    regular   position:      a,  the    frOg    are    equally    dovel- 
side-wall;  6,  quarter;  c,  beginning  of  the  bar;  d,  «      , 

buttress;  f,  middle  of  the  bar;/,  body  of  the  sole;  Opod.        ilie    WryUCSS    01    ttlC 

/',   branches  of  sole;  g,  white  line;  g',  apparent  ■,         r     -,  _  i^    ,,^„„     +1^„     j; 

end  of  the  bar;  ;»,  body  of  the  frog;  i,  branch  of  hoof    dcpcuds    UpOU    the    dl- 

the  frog;  A;,  bulbs  (glomes)  of  the  heel;  ?.  middle  ^q^^I^q^^    of    ^he    limb;    thcrC- 
cleft  of  frog;  m,  lateral  cleft  of  frog.  _  ' 

fore,  a  base-wide  hoof 
should  be  regarded  as  a  normally  wry  hoof,  to  distinguish  it 
from  hoofs  which  are  wry  from  disease. 

A  hoof  of  the  toe-wide  position  (Fig.  81)  is  distinguished 
from  the  preceding  by  the  bending  or  curvature  of  the  plantar 
border  of  the  outer  toe  and  inner  quarter  being  often  decidedly 
less  pronounced  than  on  the  inner  toe  and  outer  quarter ;  there- 
fore, two  short  curves  and  two  long  curves  lie  opposite  each 
other;  in  other  words,  the  inner  toe  and  outer  quarter,  lying 


HORSESHOEING. 


79 


opposite  each  other,  are  sharply  curved,  while  the  outer  toe 
and  inner  quarter,  lying  opposite  each  other,  are  much  less 
sharply  bent  or  curved.  The  toes  are  turned  out.  The  feet  are 
not  set  down  flat  upon  the  ground,  but  meet  it  with  the  outer  toe. 
A  hoof  of  the  base-nairoiv  position  is  normally  ivry,  but 
never  so  pronounced  as  a  hoof  of  the  base-wide  position.  The 
inner  wall  is  but  little  more  oblique  than  the  outer,  the  differ- 
ence being  most  noticeable  at  the  quarters  (Figs.  65  and  66). 
The  curve  of  the  plantar  border  of  the  wall  is  similar  to  that 
of  a  regular  hoof,  except  that  the  inner  side  wall  and  quarter 


Fig.  80. 


Fig.  81. 


Right  fore-hoof  of  the  base-wide  position. 


Right  fore-hoof  of  the  toe-wide  position. 


are  a  little  more  sharply  curved  in  a  base-naiTow  hoof.  Occa- 
sionally the  outer  quarter  is  somewhat  drawn  in  under  the  foot. 

This  form  of  hoof  is  most  distinctly  marked  in  animals 
that  stand  toe-narrow  or  are  bandy-legged. 

As  to  the  forms  of  the  hind  hoofs,  what  has  been  said  cou- 
ceming  the  influence  of  position  of  the  limbs  upon  the  shape 
of  the  front  feet  will  apply  equally  well  to  them.  The  hind 
hoof  (Fig.  82)  is  not  round  at  the  toe,  but  somewhat  pointed 
or  oval.  It  greatest  width  is  between  the  middle  and  posterior 
thirds  of  the  sole.     It  usually  has  a  strongly  concaved  sole  and 


80 


HORSESHOEING. 


a  somewhat  steeper  toe  than  the  fore-hoof;  viewed  from,  the 
side,  the  angle  of  the  toe  with  the  ground  in  the  regular  stand- 
ing position  is  from  fifty  to  fifty-five  degrees. 

Finally,  we  also  distinguish  wide  and  narrow  hoofs;  they 
are  not  dependent  upon  the  position  of  the  limbs,  but  upon  the 
race  and  breeding  of  the  animal. 

The  wide  hoof  (Fig.  83)  is  almost  round  upon  its  plantar 

surface.  Its  wall  runs 
quite  oblique  to  the  ground. 
The  sole  is  but  moderately 
concave,  and  the  frog  is 
fetrong  and  well  developed. 
The  narrow  hoof  (Fig.  84) 
is  rather  elliptical,  with 
steep  side  walls,  strongly 
concaved  sole,  and  small, 
^  undeveloped  frog.  The  horn 
of  the  narrow  hoof  is  fine 
and  tough ;  of  the  wide  hoof, 
usually  coarse.  The  wide 
lioof  may  readily  become 
flat.  Narrow  hoofs  are  either 
the  result  of  breeding  or 
premature  shoeing. 

In  enumerating  the  pre- 


Right  hind  hoof  of  the  regular  position:  a, 
side-wall;  6,  beginning  of  the  quarter;  c,  begin- 
ning of  the  bar;  d,  buttress;  e,  middle  of  bar;  /, 
body  of  the  sole;  /',  branch  of  sole;  g,  white  line 
of  the  toe;  g',  white  line  of  the  bar;  h,  body  of 
the  frog;  i,  branch  of  the  frog;  k,  bulbs  of  heel; 
I,  middle  cleft  of  frog;  m,  lateral  cleft  of  frog. 


ceding  forms  of  the  hoof  we 


have  by  no  means  referred 
to  all  the  forms  in  which 
the  hoof  may  be  found  ;  on  the  contrary,  hoofs  vary  in  shape  and 
quality  to  such  an  extent  that  among  a  hundred  horses  no  two 
hoofs  can  be  found  which  are  exactly  alike.  In  fact^  the  same 
variety  exists  as  in  the  faces  of  people,  and  we  know  that  we  can 
recall  in  succession  even  many  more  faces  without  finding  two 
that  are  exactly  alike.  This  explains  the  manifold  differences 
in  horsefehoes  with  respect  to  size,  form  and  other  qualities. 


HORSESHOEING. 


81 


Suppose  now  a  hoof  is  before  us ;  it  is  first  necessary  to  know 
whether  or  not  it  is  healthy.  Unfortunately,  a  perfectly  healthy 
hoof  is  not  so  easy  to  find  as  one  may  think.  We  recognize  a 
sound  hoof  by  the  following  marks:  Seen  from  in  front  or 
from  the  side,  the  course  of  the  wall  from  the  coronet  to  the 
ground,  in  tlie  direction  of  the  horn-tubes,  is  straight, — tliat  is, 
bent  neither  in  nor  out.  A  straight  edge,  placed  upon  the  wall 
in  the  direction  of  the  hora-tubes,  touches  at  every  point.  The 
wall  must  show  neither  longitudinal  nor  transverse  cracks  or 


Fig.  83. 


Fig.  84. 


Wide  fore-hoof. 


Narrow  fore-hoof. 


fissures.  If  there  be  rings,  their  position  and  course  are  im- 
portant. Rings  which  pass  around  the  entire  circumference 
of  the  wall  parallel  to  the  coronet  indicate  nothing  more  than 
disturbances  of  nutrition  of  the  hoof;  hut  the  hoof  cannot  pass 
for  sound  when  the  rings  have  any  other  position  and  direction 
than  the  one  mentioned,  or  if  the  rings  upon  any  part  of  the 
wall  are  more  marked  than  elsewhere,  even  though  they  may 
be  parallel  to  the  coronary  band.  Marked  ring-building  upon 
the  hoofs  of  horses  which  have  regular  feeding,  grooming,  and 
work  indicates  a  weak  hoof.     Viewed  from  the  ground-surface 


82  HORSESHOEING. 

and  from  behind,  the  bulbs  of  the  heels  should  be  well  rounded, 
strongly  developed,  and  not  displaced.  The  concave  sole  should 
show  no  separation  along  the  white  line.  The  frog  should  be 
strong,  well  developed,  and  have  symmetrical  branches  and  a 
broad,  shallow,  dry  median  lacuna.  The  lateral  lacunae  of  the 
frog  should  be  clean  and  not  too  narrow.  The  bars  should  pass 
in  a  straight  direction  forward  and  inward  towards  the  point 
of  the  frog.  Any  bending  outward  of  the  bars  towards  the 
branches  of  the  sole  indicates  the  beginning  of  a  narrowing 
of  the  space  occupied  by  the  frog, — ^that  is,  contraction  of  the 
heels.  The  horn  of  the  branches  of  the  sole  in  the  buttresses 
and  in  their  proximity  should  show  no  red  staining.  The 
lateral  cartilages  should  be  elastic.  No  part  of  the  foot  should 
be  weakened  at  the  coist  of  other  parts.  By  firm  union  of  all 
strong  parts  the  strength  and  vigor  of  the  hoof  is  in  no  sense 
disturbed.  //  one  desires  to  ascertain  the  exact  form  and  state 
of  health  of  the  hoof,  it  must  never  he  inspected  and  judged 
alone,  hut  in  connection  with  the  entire  limb. 

F.  Growth  of  the  Hoof  and  Wear  of  the  Hoof  and  Shoe. 

All  parts  of  the  horn  of  the  hoof  grow  downward  and  for- 
ward, the  material  for  this  growth  being  furnished  by  the  re- 
markably large  quantity  of  blood  which  flows  to  the  pododerm. 
The  growth  of  the  hoof  is  regulated  by  the  nerves. 

As  a  rule,  the  hoof  grows  uniformly, — ^that  is,  one  section 
of  the  wall  grows  just  as  rapidly  as  another.  A  visible  indication 
of  growth  is  the  increase  in  height  and  width  of  the  hoof  from 
colthood  to  maturity. 

The  rapidity  of  growth  of  the  wall  varies,  amounting  in  a 
month  to  from  one-«ixth  to  one-half  of  an  inch.  The  average 
monthly  growth  in  both  shod  and  unshod  horses  of  both  feexes 
is,  according  to  my  own  experiments,  one-third  of  an  inch. 
Hind  hoofs  grow  faster  than  front  hoofs,  and  unshod  faster 
than  shod.  The  hoofs  of  stallions  grow  more  slowly  than 
those  of  mares  and  geldings. 


HORSESHOEING.  83 

Abundant  exercise,  proper  grooming  (flexibility  and  moist- 
ness  of  the  born),  regular  dressing  of  the  wall,  and  running 
barefoot  from  time  to  time  favor  growth ;  while  little  or  no 
exercise,  dryness,  and  excessive  length  of  the  hoof  hinder 
growth. 

The  time  required  for  the  horn  to  grow  from  the  coronet  to 
the  ground  is,  therefore,  equally  variable,  and  is,  inoreover, 
dependent  upon  the  height  (length  of  toe)  of  the  hoof.  At  the 
toe  the  horn  grows  down  in  from  eleven  to  thirteen  months, 
at  the  mammae  or  sides  in  from  six  to  eight  months,  and  at  the 
quarters  in  from  three  to  five  months.  The  time  required  for 
the  renewal  of  the  entire  hoof  we  term  the  period  of  hoof 
renewal.  If,  for  example,  we  know  exactly  the  rapidity  of 
horn  grovsrth  in  a  given  case,  we  can  estimate  without  difficulty 
the  length  of  the  "  period  of  hoof  renewal,"  as  well  for  the 
entire  hoof  as  for  each  individual  section  of  the  wall.  The 
duration  of  many  diseases  of  the  hoof  (cracks,  clefts,  partial 
bendings  of  the  wall,  contractions,  etc.)  can  be  foretold  with 
relative  certainty  only  by  knowing  the  period  of  hoof  renewal. 

Irregular  growth  sometimes  takes  place.  The  chief  cause 
of  this  is  usually  an  improper  distribution  of  the  body-weight 
over  the  hoof, — ^that  is,  an  unbalanced  foot.  Wry  hoofs  of 
faulty  positions  of  the  limbs  are  often  exposed  to  this  evil ;  a 
faulty  preparation  of  the  hoof  (dressing)  for  the  shoe,  as  well 
as  neglect  of  the  colt's  hoofs,  is  in  the  majority  of  cases  directly 
responsible  for  this  condition. 

If  in  the  shortening  of  the  wall  a  part  is  from  ignorance 
left  too  long,  or  one-half  of  the  hoof  shortened  too  much  in 
relation  to  the  other  half,  the  foot  will  be  unbalanced.  The 
horse  will  tlien  touch  the  ground  first  with  the  section  of  wall 
which  has  been  left  too  high,  and  will  continue  to  do  so  until 
this  long  section  has  been  reduced  to  its  proper  level  (length) 
by  the  increased  wear  which  will  take  place  at  this  point.  In 
unshod  hoofs  this  levelling  process  takes  place  rapidly;  such, 
however,  is  not  the  case  in  shod  hoofs,  for  here  the  shoe  prevents 


84 


HORSESHOEING. 


Fig.  85. 


rapid  wear,  and,  indeed  this  levelling  process  is  often  rendered 
impossible  through-  the  welding  of  high  steel  calks  to  the  shoe. 
If  this  fault  in  trimming  be  repeated  at  the  next  and  Subse- 
quent 'shoeings,  and  if  the  faulty  relation  of  the  ground  surface 
of  the  hoof  to  the  direction  of  the  foot-axis  remain  during 
several  months,  the  portion  of  wall 
left  too  high  will  grow  more  rapidly, 
the  walls  will  lose  their  natural 
straight  direction  and  become  bent 
If,  for  example,  the  outer  wall  has 
been  left  too  long  during  a  consider- 
able period  of  time,  a  crooked  hoof 
results  (Fig.  85)  in  which  the  rings 
are  placed  closer  together  upon  the 
low  (concave)  side  than  upon  the 
high  (convex)  side.  If  for  a  long 
time  the  toe  is  excessively  long,  it 
will  become  bent;  or  if  this  fault 
affects  excessively  high  quarters  they 
will  contract  either  just  under  the  coronary  band  or  will  curl 
forward  and  inward  at  their  lower  borders.  These  examples  are 
sufficient  to  show  both  the  importance  of  the  manner  in  which  a 
horse  places  his  foot  to  the  ground  and  its  influence  upon  the 
loading,  growth,  and  fonn  of  the  hoof. 

Wear  of  the  Shoe  and  of  the  Hoof  upon  the  Shoe. 

The  wear  of  the  shoe  is  caused  much  less  by  the  weight  of 
the  animal's  body  than  by  the  rubbing  which  takes  place  be- 
tween the  shoe  and  the  earth  whenever  the  foot  is  placed  to  the 
ground  and  lifted. 

The  wear  of  the  shoe  which  occurs  when  the  foot  is  placed 
on  the  ground  is  termed  "  grounding  wear,"  and  that  which 
occurs  while  the  foot  is  being  lifted  from  the  ground  is  termed 
"  swinging-off  wear.'*  When  a  horse  travels  normally,  both 
kinds  of  wear  are  nearly  alike,  but  are  very  distinct  when  the 


Crooked  (right)  fore-hoof. 


HORSESHOEING. 


85 


paces  are  abnormal,  especially  when  there  is  faulty  direction  of 
the  limbs.  WTiile  in  the  majority  of  horses  whose  limbs  have 
been  stiffened  by  age  and  overwork  both  kinds  of  wear  are  most 
marked  at  the  toe  of  the  shoe,  we  see  relatively  fewer  cases  of 
"  grounding  wear  "  at  the  ends  of  the  branches  (as  in  lamini- 
tis)  ;  on  the  contrary,  we  always  notice  "swinging-off  wear"  at 
the  toe  of  the  shoe.  It  is  worthy  of  notice  that  length  of  stride 
has  much  to  do  with  the  wear.  We  observe  that  with  shorten- 
ing of  the  stride  both  kinds  of  wear  occur  at  the  toe  of  the 
shoe,  and  this  is  rapidly  worn  away,  as  is  the  case  with  horses 


Fig.  86. 


Fig.  87 


Fig. 


A  normal-angled  foot 
with  straight  foot  axis. 
The   shoe   shows   uniform 


An  upright  foot  with 
foot  axis  broken  forward 
by  reason  of  too  high  quar- 
ters. The  shoe  shows 
"grounding"  wear  at  ends 
of  branches,  and  "swing- 
ing off"  wear  at  toe. 


A  hoof  with  foot  axis 
broken  backward  by  rea- 
son of  surplus  horn  at  the 
toe.  The  shoe  shows  ex- 
cessive "grounding"  and 
"swinging  off"  wear  at 
the  toe. 


which  are  fretful  and  prance  imder  the  rider,  draw  heavy  loads, 
or  from  any  other  cause,  as  disease  or  infinnity,  are  obliged  to 
shorten  their  steps.  With  increase  of  length  of  stride  the  wear 
of  the  shoe  becomes  more  uniform. 

The  position  and  form  of  the  shoe  have  a  marked  influence 
upon  its  wear; at  the  place  where  the  shoe  is  too  far  under 
the  hoof  either  as  a  residt  of  shifting  or  of  having  been  nailed 
on  crooked,  or  where  the  outer  branch  has  not  the  necessary 
width,  or  does  not  form  a  sufficiently  large  curve,  the  wear  will 
be  increased. 


86  HORSESHOEING. 

Also  tlie  relative  length  of  side-walls,  or  of  toe  and  heels, 
influences  rapidity  of  wear  of  the  shoe.  If  through  ignorance 
or  carelessness  one  side-wall  be  left  too  long,  the  branch  beneath 
will  meet  the  ground  before  other  parts  of  the  shoe  and  will 
wear  faster  (see  Eigs.  87,  88  and  89). 

The  wear  of  the  hoof  upon  the  shoe  occurs  as  a  result  of  the 
movements  of  the  quarters.  Visible  indications  of  this  are  the 
brightly  polished,  often  sunken  places  upon  the  bearing-surface 
of  the  ends  of  the  branches,  showing  that  scouring  occurs  be- 
tween the  horn  and  the  iron.  Shoes  which  show  brightly  pol- 
ished places  in  their  anterior  halves  have  been  loose.  The  wear 
of  the  quarters  upon  the  shoe  is  not  always  uniform,  but  is 
usually  greater  on  the  inner  than  on  the  outer  quarter,  especially 
in  base-wide  feet.  The  degree  of  this  wear  of  the  hoof  may  be 
from  nothing  to  one-fourth  of  an  inch  or  more  from  one  shoeing 
to  the  next.  Finally,  we  should  remember  that  this  usually 
invisible  scouring  away  of  the  hoof  gradually  causes  the  nails 
at  the  quarters  to  become  loose,  and  that  this  is  more  clearly 
marked  in  the  front  than  in  the  hind  hoofs. 

G.  Physiological  Movements  of  the  Hoof.  (Mechanism  of  the 
Hoof.) 

These  movements  comprise  all  those  changes  of  position 
within  and  of  the  hoof  which  are  brought  about  by  alternately 
weighting  and  relieving  the  foot,  and  which  are  manifest  as 
changes  of  form  of  the  hoof.  The  following  changes  in  form  of 
the  hoof  are  most  marked  at  the  time  that  the  hoof  bears  great- 
est weight, — that  is,  simultaneous  with  the  greatest  descent  of 
the  fetlock- joint. 

1.  A  lateral  expansion  over  the  entire  region  of  the  quarters, 
occurring  simultaneously  at  the  coronary  and  plantar  borders. 
This  expansion  is  small,  and  in  general  varies  between  one- 
fiftieth  and  one-twelfth  of  an  inch. 

2.  A  narrowing  of  the  anterior  half  of  the  hoof  measured 
at  the  coronary  border. 


HORSESHOEING. 


87 


Fig.  89. 


3.  A  decrease  in  height  of  the  hoof,  with  a  slight  sinking 
of  the  heels. 

4.  A   flattening    (sinking)    of   the   sole,    especially   in   its 
branches. 

These  changes  of  form  are  much  more  pronounced  in  the 
half  of  the  hoof  that  bears  the  greater  weight. 

A  hoof  while  supporting  the  body-weight  has  a  different  form, 
and  the  tissues  enclosed 
within  it  a  different  posi- 
tion, than  when  not  bear- 
ing weight.  Since  load- 
ing and  unloading  of  the 
foot  are  continually  al- 
ternating, the  relations 
of  internal  pressure  even 
in  the  standing  animal 
are  continuously  chang- 
ing, so  that,  strictly 
speaking,  the  hoof  is 
never  at  rest. 

The  changes  in  form 

+nVA  -nlflfi^   in    f1if»   fnllr^w  Transverse  vertical  section  through  the  middle  of  a 

taKe   place    in    tne    lOllOW-     ^.^j^^  ^^^^  ^j^^^  ^^^^  ^^  base-wide  form,  viewed  from 

ino"       order:        the       body-  behind.  The  outer  wall  having  been  insufficiently  low- 

^^  (•   1  '      (•  1  ^'"®*^    ^^^   caused  increased  wear    of  the  underlying 

weight    falls    from     above  branchof  the  shoe:  a,  wear  of  inner  branch  (beneath 

,  the    relatively    short  wall) ;  6,  greater  wear  of  outer 

upon     the     OS     COrOnae,     OS  branch  beneath  the  relatively  long  wall;  c,  the  horn 

•n  P  fl  i  <?        and     navipnlflr  between  the  dotted  line  and  the  shoe  represents  the 

p  e  CI  1  s  ,    ana    navicular  gy^piug  je^gth  of  this  outer  waii. 
bone,  and  at  the  moment 

that  the  foot  is  placed  upon  the  ground  is  transmitted  through 
the  sensitive  laminae  and  homy  laminae  to  the  wall.  At  the  in- 
stant that  the  fetlock  reaches  its  lowest  point  the  os  pedis  bears 
the  greatest  weight.  Under  the  body-weight  the  latter  yields, 
and  with  the  navicular  bone  sinks  downward  and  backward.  At 
the  same  time  the  upper  posterior  portion  of  the  os  coronae  (Fig. 
90,  A)  passes  backward  and  downward  between  the  lateral  car- 
tilages (a),  which  project  above  the  upper  border  of  the  wall, 


88 


HORSESHOEING. 


and  presses  the  perforans  tendon  down  upon  tke  plantar  cushion. 
The  plantar  cushion  being  compressed  from  above,  and  being  un- 
able to  expand  downward,  is  correspondingly  squeezed  out 
towards  the  sides  and  crowded  against  the  lateral  cartilages,  and 
they,  yielding,  press  against  and  push  before  them  the  wall  at 
the  quarters.  The  resistance  of  the  earth  acts  upon  the  plantar 
surface  of  the  hoof,  and  especially  upon  tlie  frog,  and  it,  widen- 
ing, crowds  the  bars  apart,  and  in  this  manner  contributes  to 
the  expansion  of  the  quarters,  especially  at  their  plantar  border 
(see  Fig.  90).     The  horny  sole  under  the  descent  and  pressure 

of  the  OS  pedis  sinks  a 
little — that  is,  the  arch 
of  the  sole  becomes 
somewhat  flattened.  All 
these  changes  are  much, 
more  marked  upon 
sound  unshod  hoofs,  be- 
cause in  them  the  re- 
sistance of  the  earth 
upon  the  sole  and  frog 
is  pronoimced  and  com- 
plete. These  changes  in 
form  are  more  marked 
in  front  feet  than  in 
hind.  In  defective  and 
diseased  hoofs  it  may  happen  that  at  the  moment  of  greatest 
weight-bearing,  instead  of  an  expansion  a  contraction  may 
occur  at  the  plantar  border  of  the  quarters. 

Three  highly  elastic  organs  there  are  which  play  the  chief 
part  in  these  movements, — ^namely,  the  lateral  cartilages,  the 
plantar  cushion,  and  the  homy  frog.  Besides  these  structures, 
indeed,  all  the  remaining  parts  of  the  horn  capsule,  especially 
its  coronary  border,  possess  more  or  less  elasticity,  and  con- 
tribute to  the  above-mentioned  changes  of  form. 

In  order  to  maintain  the  elastic  tissues  of  the  foot  in  their 
proper  activity,  regular  and  abundant  exercise,  with  protection 


Vertical,  transverse  section  of  a  foot  seen  from  behind: 
A,  OS  coronae;  B,  os  navicularis;  C,  os  pedis;  a,  lateral 
cartilage;  6,  anterior  portion  of  fleshy  frog;  c,  section  of 
perforans  tendon;  d,  suspensory  ligament  of  the  navicu- 
lar bone;  /,  wall;  m,  sole;  n,  white  line;  o,  frog. 


HORSESHOEING.  89 

against  drying  out  of  the  hoof,  are  absolutely  necessary,  because 
the  movements  of  the  different  structures  within  the  foot  and 
the  changes  of  form  that  occur  at  each  step  are  indispensable  in 
presenting  the  health  of  the  hoof.  Long-continued  rest  in  the 
stable,  drying  out  of  the  hoof,  and  shoeing  decrease  or  alter  the 
physiological  movements  of  the  foot,  and  these  lead  under  cer- 
tain conditions  to  foot  diseases,  ^^^th  which  the  majority  of 
horse  owners  are  entirely  unacquainted. 

As  an  outward,  visible  indication  of  the  mobility  of  the 
quarters  upon  the  shoe  Ave  may  point  to  the  conspicuous,  brightly 
polished,  and  often  sunken  spots,  or  grooves,  upon  the  ends  of 
the  branches.  They  are  produced  partly  by  an  in-and-out 
motion  of  the  walls  at  the  quarters,  and  partly  by  a  forward 
and  backward  gliding  of  the  quarters  upon  the  shoe. 

The  benefits  of  these  physiological  movements  within  the 
hoof  are  manifold : 

1.  Through  them  shock  is  dispersed  and  the  body  protected 
from  the  evil  consequences  of  concussion  or  shock. 

2.  These  movements  increase  the  elasticity  of  the  entire 
limb,  and  in  this  way  contribute  much  to  a  light  and  elegant  gait. 

3.  They  maintain  a  lively  circulation  of  blood  in  the  vessels 
of  the  pododerm,  and  this  insures  a  rapid  growth  of  horn. 

Since  it  is  a  generally  accepted  fact  that  shoeing  interferes 
with  the  physiological  movements  of  the  hoof,  alters  them,  in- 
deed, almost  suppresses  them,  and  that  all  these  movements  are 
spontaneous  and  natural  only  in  sound  unshod  hoofs,  we  are 
justified  in  regarding  shoeing  as  a  necessary  evil.  However,  it 
is  indispensable  if  we  wish  to  render  horses  serviceable  upon 
hard  artificial  roads.  If,  in  shoeing,  consideration  be  given  to 
the  structure  and  functions  of  the  hoof,  and  particularly  to 
the  hoof-surface  of  the  shoe,  the  ends  of  the  branches  being 
provided  with  a  smooth,  level  bearing-surface,  which  allows 
free  play  to  the  elastic  horn  capsule,  in  so  far  as  this  is  not 
hindered  by  the  nails  we  need  have  no  fear  of  subsequent  dis- 
ease of  the  hoofs,  provided  the  horse  is  used  with  reason  and 
receives  proper  care. 


PART  II. 


CHAPTER   III. 

SHOEING  HEALTHY  HOOFS. 

A.  Examination  of  a  Horse  Preliminary  to  Shoeing. 

An  examination  should  be  made  while  the  animal  is  at  rest, 
and  afterwards  while  in  motion.  The  object  of  the  examination 
is  to  gain  accurate  knowledge  of  the  direction  and  movements 
of  the  limbs,  of  the  form  and  character  of  the  feet  and  hoofs,  of 
the  manner  in  which  the  foot  reaches  and  leaves  the  ground, 
of  the  form,  length,  position,  and  wear  of  the  shoe,  and  dis- 
tribution of  the  nail-holes,  in  order  that  at  the  next  and  sub- 
sequent shoeings  all  ascertained  peculiarities  of  hoof -form  may 
be  kept  in  mind  and  all  discovered  faults  of  shoeing  corrected. 

The  examination  is  best  conducted  in  the  following  order: 
The  horse  should  first  be  led  at  a  walk  in  a  straight  line  from 
the  observ^er  over  as  level  a  surface  as  possible,  then  turned 
about  and  brought  back,  that  the  examiner  may  notice  the 
direction  of  the  limbs  and  the  manner  in  which  the  hoofs  are 
moved  and  set  to  the  ground.  "While  the  animal  is  moving 
away  the  observer  notices  particularly  the  hind  limbs,  and  as 
it  comes  towards  him  he  examines  the  fore-limbs.  Then  a  few 
steps  at  a  trot  will  not  only  show  whether  or  not  the  animal 
is  lame,  but  will  often  remove  all  doubt  in  those  cases  in  which, 
while  the  animal  was  walking,  the  examiner  was  unable  to 
make  up  his  mind  as  to  which  was  the  predominating  position 
of  the  limb.  The  problem  presented  is,  therefore,  to  determine 
whether  or  not  the  direction  of  the  limbs,  the  lines  of  flight 
of  the  hoofs,  and  the  manner  in  which  they  are  set  down  and 
picked  up  are  regular.  If  there  are  deviations  from  the  normal 
90 


HORSESHOEING.  91 

they  will  fall  either  into  the  base-wide  and  toe-wide  group  or 
into  the  base-narrow  and  toe-narrow  group.  When  clear  upon 
these  points  the  horse  is  allowed  to  stand  quietly,  and  the  ob- 
server, placing  himself  in  front,  examines  the  foot  more  closely, 
fixes  the  direction  of  the  foot  axis  clearly  in  his  mind,  marks 
also  the  form  and  character  of  the  hoofs  and  the  position  of 
the  coronets,  as  far  as  these  parts  can  be  inspected  from  in 
front.  At  the  same  time  each  hoof  should  be  closely  inspected 
to  determine  whether  the  slant  of  both  quarters  corresponds 
to  the  direction  of  the  long  pastern,  and  whether  the  course  of 
the  wall  from  the  coronet  to  the  plantar  border  is  straight  or 
bent  in  or  out  (contraction,  fulness).  Walls  curved  from  above 
to  below  always  indicate  an  unnatural  height  of  some  section 
of  the  wall  and  a  displacement  of  the  base  of  support  of  the 
foot.  In  order  to  gain  accurate  and  complete  knowledge  of  the 
position  of  the  limbs,  the  flight  of  the  hoofs,  and  the  manner 
of  setting  the  foot  to  the  ground,  the  horse  must  frequently  be 
moved  back  and  forth  many  times,  especially  when  the  stand- 
ing position  is  somewhat  irregular  and  the  hoofs  are  of  different 
shapes. 

At  this  point  begins  the  examination  of  the  position  of  the 
limbs,  and  the  form  of  the  feet  and  hoofs,  in  profile.  After 
casting  a  glance  over  the  entire  body,  so  as  to  gain  an  idea  of 
the  animal's  weight,  height,  and  length,  the  attention  is  turned 
to  the  position  and  direction  of  the  limbs  and  hoofs.  The  eye 
should  particularly  note  whether  the  form  of  the  hoof  cor- 
responds to  the  position  of  the  limb,  and,  furthermore,  whether 
the  slant  of  the  pastern  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  wall  at  the 
toe, — that  is,  whether  the  foot  axis  is  straight  or  broken ;  also 
whether  the  toes  and  quarters  are  parallel,  for  the  toe  is  some- 
times bulging  (convex)  or  hollowed  out  (concave)  between  the 
coronet  and  plantar  border,  and  the  quarters  are  frequently  con- 
tracted and  drawn  or  shoved  under  the  foot  (weak  quarters). 
If  the  wall  present  rings  the  observer  shoiild  note  their  position 
with  reference  to  one  another  and  to  the  coronet,  and  also  their 


92  HORSESHOEING. 

extent,  and,  furthermore,  should  determine  whether  or  not  they 
cross  one  another  (thrash  of  the  frog).  At  the  same  time  he 
should  notice  the  length  of  the  shoes. 

Next,  the  feet  should  be  raised  and  the  examiner  should 
notice  the  width  of  the  hoof,  tlie  arching  of  the  sole,  the  char- 
acter of  the  frog,  the  position  of  the  bulbs  of  the  heel,  as  well 
as  the  presence  of  any  cracks  or  clefts  in  the  wall.  Then  the 
old  shoes  should  be  examined  as  to  their  age,  form,  tlie  distribu- 
tion and  direction  of  their  nail-holes  ("punching"),  position, 
and  wear.  With  respect  to  the  form  of  the  old  shoe,  one 
should  observe  whether  or  not  it  corresponds  to  the  form  of 
the  hoof.  The  same  careful  examination  should  be  made  of 
the  number  and  distribution  of  the  nail-holes.  As  regards  the 
position  of  the  shoe,  one  must  first  ascertain  whether  it  com- 
pletely covers  the  bearing-surface  of  the  wall,  and  whether  the 
shoe  extends  beyond  the  wall  at  any  point  and  has  caused  in- 
terfering or  given  rise  to  irregular  wear.  Finally,  the  wear  of 
the  shoe  should  be  observed,  and  the  follo-unng  points  borne  in 
mind :  One-sided  wear,  uneven  setting  down  of  the  feet,  and  an 
unnatural  course  of  the  ivall  are  often  found  together,  especially 
when  uneven  wearing  of  the  shoe  has  existed  for  a  long  time, 
— -that  is,  during  several  shoeings.  As  a  rule,  in  such  a  case 
the  more  worn  branch  of  the  shoe  is  too  near  the  centre  of  the 
foot,  and  the  opposite  branch  too  far  from  the  centre  (too 
"  full  ")  ;  in  other  words,  the  base  of  support  (shoe)  has  been 
shifted  too  far  in  the  direction  of  the  less  worn  branch.  More- 
over, increased  wear  of  a  part,  of  a  shoe  is  an  indication  that  the 
section  of  the  wall  above  it  is  too  high  (too  long)  (Eig.  89), 
or  that  the  wall  upon  the  opposite  side  of  the  foot  is  too  low 
(short).  The  twisting  movement  of  many  hind  feet  should, 
from  physiological  reasons,  not  be  hindered  by  shoeing. 

B.  Raising  and  Holding  the  Feet  of  the  Horse  to  be  Shod. 

Thi's  can  always  be  done  without  much  trouble  if  the  horse 
has  been  accustomed  to  it  from  early  colthood.     Certain  rules 


HORSESHOEING.  93 

governing  the  manner  of  taking  hold  of  the  feet,  and  of  after- 
wards manipulating  them,  are  of  vahie. 

A  shoer  should  never  grasp  a  foot  suddenly,  or  with  both, 
hands.  The  horse  should  first  be  prej^ared  for  this  act.  First 
see  that  the  horse  stands  in  'such  a  position  that  he  can  bear  his 
weight  comfortably  upon  three  legs.  This  is  well  worth  notic- 
ing, and  if  the  horse  does  not  voluntarily  assume  such  an  easy 
position,  move  him  gently  until  his  feet  are  well  under  his  body. 

If  the  shoer,  for  example,  wishes  to  raise  the  left  fore  foot 
for  inspection,  he  stands  on  the  left  side  facing  the  animal, 
speaks  quietly  to  him,  places  the  palm  of  the  right  hand  flat 
upon  the  animal's  shoulder,  and,  at  the  same  time,  with  tlie  left 
hand  strokes  the  limb  do^vnward  to  the  cannon  and  seizes  the 
cannon  from,  in  front.  With  the  right  hand  he  now  gently 
presses  the  horse  towards  the  opposite  side,  and  the  foot  be- 
coming loose  as  the  weight  is  shifted  upon  the  other  leg,  he  lifts 
it  from  the  ground.  The  right  hand  now  grasps  the  pastern 
from  the  inside  followed  by  the  left  hand  upon  the  inside  and 
the  right  hand  on  the  outside;  then,  turning  partly  to  the 
right,  the  holder  supports  the  horse's  leg  upon  his  left  leg,  in 
which  position  he  should  always  stand  as  quietly  and  firmly  as 
possible.  If,  now,  the  shoer  desires  to  have  both  hands  free 
to  work  upon  the  hoof,  he  grasps  the  toe  with  the  left  hand  in 
such  a  manner  that  the  toe  rests  firmly  in  the  palm  while  the 
four  fingers  are  closely  applied  to  the  wall  of  the  toe,  takes  a 
half  step  toward  the  rear,  passes  the  hoof  behind  his  left  knee 
into  his  right  hand  which  has  been  passed  backward  between 
his  knees  to  receive  it,  and  drawing  the  hoof  forward  outward 
and  upward  supports  it  firmly  on  his  two  knees, — the  legs  just 
above  the  knees  being  applied  tightly  against  the  pastern.  The 
forefoot  should  not  be  raised  higher  than  the  knee  (carpus), 
nor  the  hind  foot  higher  than  the  hock,  nor  either  foot  be  dra^vn 
too  far  backward.  The  correct  standing  position  of  the  shoer 
or  floorman  while  holding  a  front  foot  is  sho^vn  in  Fig.  91. 
Shortness  of  stature  (5'-5'.6'''')  is  desirable  in  a  floorman. 


94 


HORSESHOEING. 


Fig.  91. 


In  lifting  the  left  hind  foot  the  animal  should  be  gently 
stroked  back  as  far  as  the  angle  of  the  hip,  against  which  the 
left  hand  is  placed  for  support,  while  the  right  hand  strokes  the 
limb  down  to  the  middle  of  the  cannon,  which  it  grasps  from 
behind.     While  the  left  hand  presses  the  animal's  weight  over 

towards  the  right  side, 
the  right  hand  loosens 
the  foot  and  carries  it 
forward  and  outward 
from  the  body  so  that 
the  limb  is  bent  at  the 
hock.  The  holder  then 
turns  his  body  towards 
the  right,  brings  his 
left  leg'  against  the  an- 
terior surface  of  the 
fetlock- joint,  and  car- 
ries the  foot  backward, 
at  which  time  his  left 
arm  passes  over  the 
horse's  croup  and 
above  and  to  the  inner 
side  of  the  hock. 
Finally,  both  hands 
encompass  the  long 
pastern. 

If  the  right  feet 
are  to  be  raised,  the 
process  is  simply 
reversed. 

In  raising  the  feet  no  unnecessary  pain  should  be  inflicted 
by  pinching,  squeezing,  or  lifting  a  limb  too  high.  The  wise 
sheer  avoids  all  unnecessary  clamor  and  disturbance;  quiet, 
rapid,  painless  methods  avail  much  more.  In  dealing  with 
young  horses  the  feet  should  not  be  kept  lifted  too  long;  let 


Proper  position  for  holding  a  front  foot. 


HORSESHOEING. 


95 


96  HORSESHOEING. 

them  down  from  time  to  time.  In  old  and  stiff  horses  the 
feet  should  not  be  lifted  too  high,  especially  in  the  begimiing 
of  the  shoeing. 

Vicious  horses  must  often  be  severely  handled.  Watch 
the  play  of  the  ears  and  eyes  continually,  and  immediately 
punish  every  exhibition  of  temper  either  by  jerking  the  halter 
or  bridle  vigorously,  or  by  loud  commands.  If  this  does  not 
avail,  then  if  soft  ground  is  at  hand  make  the  horse  back  as 
rapidly  as  possible  for  some  time  over  this  soft  surface;  it  is 
very  disagreeable  and  tiresome  to  him.  To  raise  a  hind  foot 
we  may  knot  a  strong,  broad,  soft,  plaited  band  (side  line) 
into  the  tail,  loop  it  about  the  fetlock  of  the  hind  foot,  and 
hold  the  end.  This  often  renders  valuable  service.  The 
holder  seizes  the  band  close  to  the  fetlock,  draws  the  foot 
foi-ward  under  the  body,  and  then  holds  it  as  above  de- 
scribed. The  use  of  such  a  band  compels  the  horse  to  carry 
a  part  of  his  own  weight,  and  at  the  sam«  time  hinders  him 
from  kicking.  Before  attempting  to  place  this  rope  or  band 
about  the  fetlock,  the  front  foot  on  the  same  'side  should  be 
raised. 

The  various  sorts  of  twitches  are  objectionable,  and  their 
use  should  not  be  allowed  unless  some  painful  hoof  operation 
is  to  be  done.  The  application  of  the  tourniquet,  or  "  Spanish 
windlass,"  to  the  hind  leg  is  equally  objectionable. 

Those  horses  which  resist  our  attempts  to  shoe  them  we 
do  not  immediately  cast  or  place  in  the  stocks,  but  first  have  a 
quiet,  trustworthy  man  hold  them  by  the  bridle-reins  and 
attempt  by  gentle  words  and  soft  caresses  to  win  their  attention 
and  confidence. 

Tichlish  horses  must  be  taken  hold  of  boldly,  for  light 
touches  of  the  hand  are  to  such  animals  much  more  unpleasant 
than  energetic,  rough  handling.  Many  ticklish  horses  allow 
their  feet  to  be  raised  when  they  are  grasped  suddenly  without 
any  preparatory  movements. 


HORSESHOEING. 


97 


Fig.  94. 


C.  Removing  the  Old  Shoes. 

If  a  horse's  hoofs  are  heahhy,  all  the  shoes  may  be  taken 
off  at  the  same  time,  but  there  are  certain  diseases  of  the 
hoof    in    whicli    this    should    not    be    done. 

The    inile    to    follow    in    removing    every 
shoe   is   to   draw   it    cautiously,   not   wrench 
it    away    with    violence.      Hoofs    which    are 
dirty    should    first    be    cleansed,    preferably 
with    a    stiff    brush.       Next,    the      clinches 
should    be    carefully   lifted    by    means    of    a 
rather    dull    clinch   cutter    (Fig.    93),    with- 
out injuring  the  horn  of  the  wall.     In  order, 
now,  that  the  nails  may  be  removed  singly, 
the    shoe    must    be    slightly    lifted.       This 
may  be  done  in  one  of  two  ways. 
The  sheer  may  use  a  pair  of  pin- 
cers   (Fig.    94),    with    broad   bills 
which   ^\'ill   encompass  the  branch 
of  the  shoe  and  come  well  together 
underneath  it.     The  handles  of  the 
pincers  are  then  moved  in  the  di- 
rection of  the  branches  of  the  shoe. 
The  second  method  consists  in  rais- 
ing the  branches  of  the  shoe  by  driv- 
ing the  nail-cutter  from  behind  be- 
tween the  shoe  and  hoof  and  using 
it  as  a  lever  or  pry  to  loosen  the 
shoe. 

Violent  and  excessive  twisting 
of  the  hoof  and  straining  of  ligaments  may  easily  occur,  but 
the  smith  should  guard  against  them  by  supporting  the  hoof 
with  the  left  hand  or  with  the  leg  just  above  the  knee,  while 
loosening  the  shoe. 
7 


HORSESHOEING. 


D.  Preparing  the  Hoof  for  the  Shoe. 

This  preparation  is  usually  termed  paring,  trimming,  or 
dressing.  It  is  a  most  important  step  in  the  process  of  shoeing, 
and  its  object  is  to  shorten  the  hoof,  which  has  grown  too  long 
under  the  projection  of  the  shoe,  and  prepare  it  to  receive  the 
new  shoe.  The  instruments  needed  for  this  work  are  the  rasp 
and  the  hoof -knife   (Fig.  95)  ;  upon  large  and  hard  hoofs  a 

Fig.  95. 


German  hoof  set  with  detachable  hook  blades.      (W.   M.   Kunde,  Dresden):     a,a,  hoof 
blades;  6,  pus  searcher;  c,  scalpel. 

pair  of  sharp  nippers  (Fig.  96),  or  a  sharp  hewing  knife,  with 
broad  handle  and  perfectly  flat,  smooth  sides,  may  be  used, 
since  these  instruments  mil  considerably  facilitate  and  hasten 
the  work. 

After  the  sheer  has  carefully  examined  the  hoofs  in  the  man- 
ner described  upon  pages  90,  91,  and  92,  and  has  fixed  in  mind 
the  relation  of  the  height  of  the  hoofs  to  the  size  and  weight 
of  the  body,  he  cleanses  the  hoof  and  removes  all  stubs  of  old 


HORSESHOEING. 


nails.  At  the  same  time  he  should  be  asking  himself  if, 
where,  and  hoiv  much  horn  is  to  be  removed.  In  all  cases  all 
loosely  attached  fragments  of  horn  are  to  be  removed,  for  ex- 
ample, chips  of  horn  produced  by  repeated  bending  and  stretch- 
ing of  the  lower  border  of  the  wall.  The  sole  is  then  freed 
from  all  flakes  of  dead  horn.  The  shoer  then 
runs  the  rasp  around  the  outer  border  of  the  Fig  96. 
wall  and  breaks  it  off  to  the  depth  to  which 
he  thinks  it  should  be  shortened,  and  then 
cuts  the  wall  down  to  its  union  with  the  sole, 
so  that  at  least  one-eighth  of  an  inch  of  the 
edge  of  the  sole  lies  in  the  same  level  as  the 
bearing-surface  of  the  wall.  Finally,  the  wall, 
white  line,  and  outer  margin  of  the  sole,  form- 
ing the  "  bearing-surface,"  must  be  rasped  until 
they  are  perfectly  horizontal,  except  that  at  the 
toe  of  forehoofs  this  bearing-surface  may  be 
rasped  slightly  upward  (rolled  toe). 

In  dressing  the  hoof  the  branches  of  the  frog 
should  always  be  left  prominent  enough  to  pro- 
ject beyond  the  bearing-surface  of  the  quarters 
about  the  thickness  of  an  ordinary  flat  shoe. 
If  it  be  weakened  by  paring,  it  is  deprived  of 
its  activity,  shrinks,  and  the  hoof  becomes  nar- 
row to  a  corresponding  degree.  The  frog  should, 
therefore,  be  tnmmed  only  when  it  is  really  too 
prominent.  However,  loose  and  diseased  par- 
ticles of  horn  may  be  trimmed  away  when  it  is 
affected  with  thrush.  Nippers. 

The  bars  should  be  spared  and  never 
shortened  except  when  too  long.  Their  union  with  the  wall  at 
the  quarters  must  in  no  case  be  weakened,  and  never  cut  through 
(opening  up  the  heels).  They  should  be  left  as  high  as  the 
wall  at  the  quarters,  or  only  a  little  less,  while  the  branches  of 
the  sole  should  lie  about  one-eighth  of  an  inch  lower. 


100 


HORSESHOEING. 


Fig.  97. 


The  buttress  (angle  formed  by  the  union  of  wall  and  bar) 
requires  special  attention.  In  healthy  unshod  hoofs  the  bars 
run  backward  and  outward  in  a  straight  line  from  the  anterior 
third  of  the  frog.  In  shod  hoofs,  however,  it  happens  that  the 
buttresses  gradually  lengthen,  curl  inward,  and  f)ress  upon 
the  branches  of  the  frog,  causing  the  latter  to  shrink.  In  such 
cases  the  indication  is  to  remove  these  prolongations  of  horn 
from  the  buttresses  so  as  to  restore  to  the  bars  their  normal 
direction. 

The  sharp  edge  of  the  plantar  border  of  the  wall  should  be 
broken  away  with  a  rasp  until  the  relative  thickness  of  the 
wall  equals  its  absolute  thickness.  (Fig.  97).  However,  in 
healthy  hoofs,  that  is,  in  those  whose 
ivalls  are  straiglit  from  the  coronet  to 
the  ground,  the  outer  surface  of  the 
wall  should  never  he  rasped.  The 
only  exceptions  to  this  rule  are  those 
cases  in  which  there  is  an  outward 
bending  of  the  lower  edge  of  the  wall, 
most  frequent  on  the  inner  side  wall 
and  quarter. 

With    respect    to    the    inclination 

Longitudinal  (vertical)  section  of    of    the    gTOUud-SUrf  acC    of    the    hoof    tO 
the  wall  at  the  toe:  o  c  is  the  abso-       ,  ,.  .  (•      ,i  /»      j_ 

lute,  and  o  6  the  relative  thickness     the       dirCCtlOU      01     thC      lOOt      aXlS,      aS 
of  the  wall.     With  a  as  the  centre, 
and  the  line  a  c  as  a  radius,  a  circle 

is  drawn;   the   corner  of  horn  in     f^^^^g    ^^^  established: 
front  of  this  circle  and  indicated 
by  dotted  lines  is  to  be  removed 
with  the  rasp. 


viewed  from   in   front,   the  following 


In  the  regular  standing  position  of 
the  limbs  (seen  from  in  front)  the 
plantar  surface  of  a  hoof  is  at  right  angles  to  the  foot  axis,  and 
the  outer  and  inner  walls  are  of  equal  heights. 

In  the  hose-wide  position  of  the  limbs  the  plantar  hoof- 
isurface  is  more  or  less  inclined  to  the  foot  axis,  usually  to  a 
very  small  degree,  and  the  outer  wall  is  somewhat  higher 
(longer)  and  more  slanting  than  the  inner. 

In  tlie  hase-narrow  position  of  the  limbs  the  plantar  hoof- 


HORSESHOEING. 


101 


surface  is  more  or  less  inclined  to  the  direction  of  the  foot  axis, 
usually  quite  considerably,  and  the  inner  wall  is  somewhat 
higher  than  the  outer. 

The  foot  is  observed  from  the  side  in  order  to  determine 
the  proper  relation  of  the  length  of  the  toe  to  the  height  of 
the  quarters. 

In  this  also  the  foot  axis  is  our  guide.  If  this  axis  is  as  it 
sliould  be,  the  wall  at  the  toe  and  the  long  past  em  will  have  the 
same  slant  (Figs.  67,  68  and  69).  If  the  hoof  has  become  too 
long  under  the  protection  of  the  shoe,  this  wall  be  sho^\^l  by 
the  foot  axis  being  no  longer  a  straight  line,  but  broken  back- 


FiG.  98. 


Fig.  99. 


Fig.  100. 


An  untrimmed  hoof  with 
an  excess  of  horn  (a)  at  the 
toe  which  breaks  the  foot 
axis  backward. 


An  untrimmed  hoof  with 
an  excess  of  horn  (6)  at  the 
heels,  which  breaks  the  foot 
axis  forward. 


Hoof  dressed  and  foot 
axis  straightened  by  re- 
moving excess  of  horn  be- 
low dotted  lines  in  the  two 
preceding  illustrations. 


ward  at  the  coronet  (Fig.  98) ;  that  is,  the  hoof  in  comparison 
with  the  fetlock  will  be  too  slanting.  By  shortening  the  toe 
more  than  the  quarters  this  faulty  relation  will  be  corrected 
(Fig.  100)  and  the  foot  restored  to  its  proper  slant.  If  the 
quarters  are  too  long  (too  high)  in  comparison  with  the  length 
of  the  toe,  the  foot  axis  will  be  broken  forward  at  the  coronet 
(Fig.  99),  and  the  hoof  will  be  too  upright.  By  shortening 
the  quarters  more  than  the  toe  the  foot  axis  may  be  made 
straight.  The  plantar  surface  of  the  hoof  is  therefore  correct 
(balanced)  when  the  horse  places  the  foot  flat  upon  the 
ground  in  travelling,  and  when  the  lines  boimding  the  hoof. 


102  HORSESHOEING. 

viewed  from  in  front,  from  behind,  and  in  profile,  correspond  to 
the  direction  of  the  three  phalanges  (foot  axis). 

Finally,  this  fact  should  be  emphasized,  that  in  changing 
from  flat  shoes  to  those  with  calks,  or  the  reverse,  the  hoofs 
must  first  be  dressed  in  accordance,  so  that  the  foot  axes  will 
remain  straight,  and  the  feet  be  set  always  flat  to  the  ground 
when  the  new  shoes  are  on.  Each  hoof,  when  ready  for  the 
new  shoe,  should  be  let  down  and  the  horse  allowed  to  stand 
upon  it  while  it  is  again  carefully  examined  and  closely 
compared  with  the  opposite  hoof.  Only  after  such  close 
inspection  has  proved  the  dressing  to  be  faultless  can  the 
hoof  be  considered  as  properly  prepared  and  ready  for  the 
shoe.  The  two  front  hoofs  and  the  two  hind  hoofs,  when  the 
legs  are  in  the  same  position,  should  not  only  he  of  equal 
size,  hut  also  in  proper  relation  to  the  size  and  weight  of  the 
body. 

E.  Preparing  the  Hoof  for  going  Barefoot. 

This  becomes  necessary  when  the  nature  of  the  ground  and 
the  kind  of  service  required  of  the  horse  render  shoeing  un- 
necessary. However,  to  go  barefoot  the  hoof  must  have  plenty 
of  horn.  After  removing  the  fehoes  the  frog  should  be  pared 
down  nearly  to  the  level  of  the  wall,  and  the  sharp  outer 
edge  of  the  wall  well  rounded  off  with  the  rasp,  in  some  cases 
as  far  as  the  white  line,  otherwise  large  pieces  of  the  wall  mil 
readily  break  away.  Hoofs  with  very  slanting  walls  must  be 
more  strongly  rounded  off  than  upright  hoofs.  Going  bare- 
foot strengthens  the  hoofs.  From  time  to  time  the  condition 
of  these  shoeless  hoofs  should  be  ascertained  by  inspection,  and 
any  growing  fault  in  shape  or  direction  of  the  horn  immediately 
corrected.  It  quite  frequently  happens  that  the  sharp  edge  of 
the  wall  must  be  repeatedly  rounded,  especially  on  very  oblique 
walls  (outer  half  of  base-wide  hoofs),  and  the  quarters  may 
require  frequent  shortening,  because  they  are  not  always  worn 
away  as  fast  as  the  horn  at  the  toe. 


HORSESHOEING.  103 

F.  Making  Shoes.* 

Besides  good,  tough  iron  for  the  shoe,  we  need  an  anvil  with 
a  round  horn  and  a  small  hole  at  one  end,  a  round-headed 
turning-hammer,  a  round  sledge,  a  stamping  hammer,  a  pritchel 
of  good  steel,  and,  if  a  fullered  shoe  is  to  be  made,  a  round 
fuller.  Bodily  activity  and,  above  all  else,  a  good  eye  for 
measurement  are  not  only  desirable,  but  necessary.  A  shoe 
should  be  made  thoughtfully,  but  yet  quickly  enough  to  make 
the  most  of  the  heat. 

The  iron  of  which  horseshoes  are  made  is  derived  from  the 
natural  iron  ore.  Iron  used  for  technical  purposes  is  not 
chemically  pure.  Pure  iron  is  rather  too  soft,  and  is  there- 
fore mixed  with  different  substances,  mostly  with  "  carbon," 
tlie  most  important  ingredient  of  our  fuel.  Of  course,  the  iron 
contains  a,  very  small  quantity  of  carbon  (0.5  to  5  per  cent.). 
When  iron  contains  more  than  2.2  per  cent,  of  carbon  it  is 
hard,  brittle,  and  more  easily  melted,  and  is  known  as  crude 
iron,  or  raw  iron,  because  it  is  derived  from  the  raw  product, 
— ^black  ore.  The  melted  crude  iron  is  called  cast  iron.  Iron 
is  ductile  when  it  contains  less  than  2.2  per  cent,  of  carbon, 
and  is  then  called  forge  iron,  or  wrought  iron.  Wrought  iron 
is  fusible  only  at  a  high  temperature.  Only  weldable  iron 
containing  less  than  1.6  per  cent,  of  carbon  is  suitable  for  gen- 
eral use.  Of  this  iron  we  distinguish  two  sorts, — steel  and 
wrought  iron.     A  larger  percentage  of  carbon  is  found  in  steel 

*  On  a  shoe  we  distinguish  an  outer  and  an  inner  branch.  The 
anterior  portion,  formed  by  the  union  of  the  two  branches,  is  called 
the  toe.  The  upper  surface,  upon  which  the  hoof  rests,  is  called-  the 
hoof-surface,  and  the  under  surface,  which  is  in  contact  with  the 
eroimd,  the  ground-stir  face.  That  portion  of  the  hoof-surface  which 
is  in  direct  contact  with  the  lower  border  of  the  wall,  the  white  line, 
and  a  narrow  marcin  of  the  .sole  is  termed  the  hearing-surface,  and 
when  necessary  "  concaving  "  (seating)  extends  from  this  to  the  inner 
border  of  the  shoe.  On  the  ground-surface  is  seen  the  "  fullering  "  or 
"  crease." 


104 


HORSESHOEING. 


Fig.  102. 


than  in  wrought  iron.  Steel  is  hard,  can  be  tem- 
pered, and  may  be  called  tempered  wrought  iron.  In 
order  to  temper  or  harden  steel,  bring  it  to  a  cherry- 
red  heat,  and  then  cool  it  suddenly  by  dipping  it  in 
cold  water  or  wet  sand.  The  tempered  steel  can  again 
be  softened  as  desired  by  heating  and  ''lowly  cooling. 
By  heating  to  a  high  temperature  in  a  forge  wrought 
iron  will  become 
doughy,  and 
may  then  be  in- 
timately united 
(welded)  with 
another  piece 
at  the  same 
temperature  by 
pressure  or 
hammering. 
This  property 
is  called  weld- 
ability;  it  is  of 
great  impor- 
tance in  making 
horse-shoes.  The 
heating  of  iron 
until  it  reaches  the  welding  stage  is  called  getting  a 
"  heat."  The  act  of  welding  wrought  iron  with  steel 
is  called  "  steeling." 

Regarding  the  tools,  the  following  hints  are 
sufficient : 

Tlie  anvil  should  have  a  level,  smooth,  flat  steel 
face. 

Likewise,  the  round  head  and  flat  face  of  both 
turning-hammer  and  sledge  should  be  smooth. 

On  the  fullering-hammer  (Fig.  101)  the  left  side 
is  flat,  the  right  side  convex,  and  the  cutting  edge  has 
slightly  rounded  corners.. 


Hammer  punch. 


Pritchel. 


HORSESHOEING.  105 

The  hardy,  fullering-liammer,  and  cold  chisel  should  be 
flawless  on  the  edge. 

The  punch  (Fig.  102),  used  to  make  the  nail-holes  in  the 
shoe,  has  a  dull  point,  which  should  corresj^ond  in  size  with 
the  head  of  the  horseshoe-nail  and  have  slightly  rounded 
corners. 

The  pritchel  (Fig.  103)  should  not  taper  to  a  point,  but 
should  end  in  a  rectangular  surface  whose  length  is  twice  its 
width,  in  order  to  punch  iron  through  the  shoe  under  the 
blow  of  the  hammer. 

Making  the  Shoe. 

To  make  a  flat  shoe,  take  the  len^h  of  the  hoof  from  the  point  of 
the  toe  to  the  buttress  and  the  gi-eatest  ^vidth  of  the  hoof;  these  two 
measurement.s,  when  added  together,  give  the  length  of  the  bar  for  the 
shoe.  The  bar  shoitld  be  of  such  width  and  thickness  as  will  require 
the  least  amount  of  working.  For  a  bar-shoe  or  a  shoe  with  heel-calks 
the  bar  must  be  coiTespondinglj'^  long-er. 

Should  we  wish  to  presen-e  the  exact  outline  of  the  plantar  border 
of  the  wall,  we  may  advantageously  use  such  a  podometer  as  is  shown 
in  Fig.  104.  This  consists  of  a  perforated  sheet-iron  plate  one-sixteenth 
to  one-twelfth  of  an  inch  thick.  This  is  laid  upon  the  hoof,  and  the 
outline  of  the  wall  marked  upon  it  \A4tli  chalk. 

If  necessary,  the  hoof  may  be  set  on  a  piece  of  smooth,  stiff 
wrapping  paper  or  card-board,  and  the  outline  of  the  wall  closely 
traced  with  a  lead  pencil. 

To  make  a  front  shoe  (Figs.  107  and  108),  heat  the  bar 
white-hot  just  beyond  its  middle,  place  the  head  of  the  sledge 
hammer  across  one  end  of  the  face  of  the  anvil,  hold  the  un- 
heated  end  of  the  bar  on  the  head  of  the  sledge, — the  heated 
end  resting  on  the  face  of  the  anvil,  and  bend  the  bar  into  a 
half-circle  with  the  round  head  of  the  turning-hammer.  (The 
outer  branch  of  all  shoes  is  made  first ;  in  making  pairs  the 
right  shoe  is  made  first.)  The  extreme  end  of  the  heated  bar 
is  d^a^vn  out  to  the  desired  width  and  thickness  with  the 
sledge.  The  bent  branch  is  then  placed  obliquely  across  the 
heel  of  the  horn  of  the  anvil,  is  turned  over  toward  the  right 


106  HORSESHOEING. 

till  it  rests  upon  an  edge,  and  is  then  bevelled  diamond-shaped 
from  the  toe  to  the  end  of  the  branch.  [The  edge  in  contact 
with  the  horn  is  the  inner  edge  of  the  right  branch  (outer 
branch )  of  the  right  shoe ;  the  edge  beaten  do^\Ti  by  the  hammer 
is  the  outer  edge  of  the  outer  branch.]  The  branch  is  then 
flattened  on  the  anvil  because  in  the  bending  the  outer  edge 
has  been  stretched  and  thinned,  while  the  iron  of  the  inner 
edge  has  been  crowded  together  (back-set)  and  thickened.     In 

flattening,  the  shoe  should  be  left 
a  trifle  thinner  on  the  inner  edge. 
The  branch  is  again  placed  over 
the  horn,  and  gone  over  lightly 
with  the  flat  head  of  the  turning- 
hammer  and  brought  to  a  proper 
shape.  It  is  now  to  be  concaved 
with  or  wdtliout  the  help  of  the 
sledge,  or  the  concaving  may  be 
omitted.  The  concaving  should 
end  about  three-fourths  of  an 
inch  from  the  end  of  the  branch. 
ISTow  turn  the  branch  and  fuller 
it,  or  fuller  it  first  and  concave 
afterwards.  The  fuller  should 
be  set  in  about  one-twelfth  of 
an  inch  from  the  edge  for  small 
shoes,  somewhat  more  for  large  shoes,  and  led  from  the  end  of 
the  branch  towards  the  toe,  twice  being  necessary  to  make  the 
fullering  of  sufficient  depth.  Next,  stamp  the  holes,  punch 
them  through  with  the  pritchel,  run  over  the  surfaces,  go  over 
the  outer  edge  of  the  shoe  upon  the  horn,  and,  finally,  hammer 
the  bearing-surface  smooth  and  horizontal.  The  left  branch  is 
made  in  the  same  way,  except  that  it  is  turned  to  the  left  and 
the  fullering  carried  from  the  toe  to  the  heel.  Any  ordinary 
shoe  can  and  should  be  completed  in  the  rough  in  two  heats. 
One  pair  of  shoes  requires  from  eight  to  fifteen  minutes. 


HORSESHOEING. 


107 


The  hind  shoe  (Fig.  116)  is  made  in  like  manner,  but  the 
branches  are  not  bent  in  a  circle  but  given  that  form  sho\vn  in 
Eig.  106.  Concaving  is  not  necessary;  it  is  sufficient  merely 
to  round  the  inner  edge  of  the  web. 


Fig.  105. 


Fig.  106. 


The  curvature  of  a  branch  of  a  front  shoe. 


The  curvature  of  a  branch  of  a  hind  shoe. 


Since  in  bending  the  shoe,  and  especially  the  toe  of  a  hind 
shoe,  the  inner  edge  is  crowded  together  (back-set)  and  thick- 
ened to  the  same  extent  that  the  outer  edge  is  stretched  and 
thinned,  we  must  remember  to  do  away  with  these  inequalities 
of  thickness  and  strain  by  hammering  the  shoe  smooth. 

Peculiarities  of  the  Shoe. 

They  are  dependent  upon  the  structure,  direction,  and  posi- 
tion of  the  leg  and  hoof,  as  well  as  upon  the  horse's  service  and 
the  nature  of  the  ground.  Since  the  shoe  is  an  artificial  base 
of  support,  and  since  a  proper  surface  of  support  is  of  the 
greatest  importance  in  preserving  the  soundness  of  the  feet  and 
legs,  careful  attention  must  be  given  to  this  matter.  Naturally 
shoes  designed  for  the  various  forms  of  hoofs  must  present 
equally  great  and  equally  numerous  difference's  of  form,  as  well 
as  other  peculiarities. 

General  Properties.  1.  Form.- — A  form  corresponding  to 
the  shape  of  the  hoof  is  indispensable  in  every  shoe.    Front  and 


108 


HORSESHOEING. 


hind  and  right  and  left  shoes  should  be  sharply  defined  and 
easily  distinguishable.  Front  shoes  mu'st,  above  all  else,  be 
circular  round  at  the  toe.  Hind  shoes,  on  the  contrary,  should 
be  round  pointed  at  the  toe,  yet  not  too  much  so,  but  as  in 
Eig.  116. 

2.  Width. — All  shoes  should  be  wider  Avebbed  (more  cov- 
ered) at  tlie  toe  than  at  the  ends  of  the  branches.  The  medium 
width  should  be  about  twice  the  thickness  of  the  wall. 

3.  Thickness. — Each  shoe  should,  in  general  terms,  be  so 
thick  that  it  need  not  be  renewed  under  four  weeks.     Lungwitz 


Fig.  107. 


Fig.  108. 


Right  front  shoe,  ground-surface. 


Right  front  shoe,  hoof-surface:  a,  bearing-sur- 
face; 6,  concaving,  or  "seating." 


found  that  the  average  required  thickness  is  about  seven-six- 
teenths of  an  inch.  Of  course,  this  thickness  must  be  dimin- 
ished or  increased  according  to  the  rapidity  of  wear  of  the  shoe. 
Shoes  without  calks  should  he  of  uniform  thichness,  unless  there 
are  special  reasons  for  making  them  otherwise. 

4.  Length. — ^For  draft-horses  they  should  be  long  enough 
to  reach  the  bulbs  of  the  heel,  otherwise  shorter,  though  i^  other 
respects  they  may  differ  (see  "  special  properties  "),  but  should 
in  all  ca'ses  completely  cover  the  bearing-surface  of  the  hoof. 

5.  Surfaces. — That  part  of  the  hoof -surf  ace  of  the  shoe 
which  is  in  contact  with  the  hoof  (bearing-surface  of  the  shoe, 


HORSESHOEING.  109 

Fig.   109,  a)   should  be  horizontal  and  wide  enough  to  cover 

the  wall,  the  white  line,  and  from  a  twelfth  to  an  eighth  of 

an  inch  of  the  outer  edge  of  the  sole.     Shoes  for  large  hoofs 

require  a  broader  bearing-surface  than  those  for  small  hoofs. 

The  concaving,  or  "seating"   (Fig.  109,  h),  should  be  made 

deeper  or  shallower,  according  to  the  nature 

.  Fig.  109. 

of  the  sole.     SJioes  for  hoofs  with  strongly  '     ^'  ^ 

arched  (very  concave)  soles,  do  not  require 
any  concaving  (hind  hoofs,  narrow  fore- 
hoofs).     The  object  of  concavinq  is  to  pre- 

■'  '  '  a  r  Transverse  section  of  a 

vent  pressure  of  the  shoe  upon  the  homy  sole  branch  of  a  front  shoe:  a, 

,       ,    •,  •  bearing-surface;    6,    con- 

eXCept  at  its  margin.  caving;    c,    fullering,    or 

The  ground-surface  of  the  shoe  should  be   ""'"''"=  ''  ""''■'°'" 
flat  and  perfectly  Jiorizontal,  except  at  the  toe,  which  may  be 
turned  upward  (rolled  toe,  "rolling  motion"). 

6.  Borders. — The  outer  border  should  usually  be  moderately 
base-narrow, — that  is,  the  circumference  of  the  ground-surface 
of  the  shoe  should  be  less  than  the  circumference  of  its  hoof- 
surface;  in  other  words,  the  entire  outer  border  of  the  shoe 
should  be  bevelled  under  the  foot  Shoes  made  base-narrow 
are  not  so  easily  loosened,  and  materially  assist  in  preventing 
interfering.     The  inner  border  should  be  moderately  rounded. 


Fig.  110. 

6 

^ 

\=:-M 

'^  V 

~^/~^m/ 

(a)  correct  and  (6)  incorrect  fullering. 

7.  The  "Fullering"  (Fig.  109,  c).— In  depth  it  should  be 
about  two-thirds  the  thickness  of  the  shoe,  of  uniform  width, 
and  "  clean."  A  fullering  is  not  absolutely  necessary,  but  it 
makes  the  shoe  lighter  in  proportion  to  its  size,  facilitates  a 
uniform  placing  of  the  nail-holes,  renders  the  ground-surface 
somewhat  rough,  and,  because  it  is  rather  difficult  to  make,  in- 
creases the  workman's  skill. 


110 


HORSESHOEING. 


8.  Nail-Holes  (Fig.  109,  d). — The  importance  of  the  nail- 
holes,  as  regards  their  character^  number,  distribution,  depth, 
and  direction,  cannot  be  over-estimated,  because  by  the  nails 
which  ai*e  driven  through  them  the  stability  of  the  shoe  upon 
the  hoof  should  be  maintained  without  injuring  the  sensitive 
structures,  splitting  the  homy  wall,  or  immoderately  interfering 
with  the  elasticity  of  the  foot.  Each  nail-hole  should  taper 
uniformly  from  the  ground  to  the  hoof-surf ac©  (funnel-shaped). 
For  a  medium-weight  shoe  six  nail-holes  are  sufficient,  while 
for  all  heavy  shoes,  especially  those  with  toe-  and  heel-calks, 


Fig.  111. 


Fig.  112. 


Swiss  military  shoe,  hoof-surface. 


Swiss  military  shoe,  ground-surface. 


eight  are  indicated ;  however,  it  should  by  no  means  be  said  that 
every  nail-hole  should  contain  a  nail.  Hind  shoes  usually 
require  one  more  nail-hole  than  front  shoes,  yet  seldom  more 
than  eight.  In  front  'shoes  the  nail-holes  should  be  placed  in 
the  anterior  half  of  the  shoe  (Figs.  107  and  108),  while  in 
hind  shoes  they  are  to  be  placed  in  the  anterior  two-thirds  of 
the  shoe  (Fig.  116),  and  in  both  cases  so  distributed  that  the 
toe  shall  be  without  nail-holes,  except  in  those  shoes  in  which  it 
iaay  be  desirable  to  omit  the  nail-holes  in  an  entire  branch 


HORSESHOEING.  Ill 

(Fig.  153).  The  depth  of  the  nail-holes — that  is,  their  dis- 
tance from  the  outer  edge  of  the  shoe — %vill  depend  always 
upon  the  thickness  of  the  wall,  and  should  equal  the  absolute 
(real)  thickness  of  the  wall  (Fig.  97).  It  is  evident,  there- 
fore, that  all  nail-holes  should  not  be  placed  at  the  same  depth 
(for  thickness  of  the  wall,  see  p.  53). 

The  direction  in  which  the  nail-holes  should  pass  through 
the  shoe  depends  upon  the  obliquity  of  the  wall.  The  nail- 
holes  around  the  toe,  as  a  rule,  should  incline  somewhat  in- 

FiG.  113. 


Form  of  clips:  a,  correct;  6,  indifferent;  c,  faulty. 

ward,  the  holes  at  the  sides  less  so,  while  those  at  the  quarters 
should  be  punched  straight, — that  is,  should  pass  perpendicu- 
larly through  the  shoe. 

Both  front  and  hind  shoes  for  army  horses  in  time  of  war 
and  manoeuvres  should  be  so  punched  that  one  or  two  nails 
may  be  placed  in  the  posterior  half  of  the  shoe  (Figs.  Ill  and 
112). 

9.  Clips  (Fig.  113)  are  half -circular^  leaf -like  ears  dra^\^l 
upward  from  the  outer  edge  of  the  shoe.  They  should  be 
strong  and  without  flaw  at  tlie  base,  and  somewhat  higher  and 
thicker  upon  hind  than  upon  front  shoes.  Their  height  on  flat 
shoes  should  equal  the  thickness  of  the  shoe,  while  on  shoes 
with  leather  soles,  or  with  toe-  and  heel-calks  they  should  be 
somewhat  higher. 

According  to  their  position  we  distinguish  toe-  and  side- 
clips.  They  secure  the  shoe  against  shifting;  therefore,  as  a 
rule,  every  shoe  should  have  a  toe-clip.  A  side-clip  should 
always  be  drawn  up  on  that  branch  of  the  shoe  which  first 
meets  the  ground  in  locomotion. 


112 


HORSESHOEING. 


Shoe  without  calks,  with  perfectly  level  hoof-  and 
ground-surfaces,  and  with  roll  at  the  toe  (flat,  rolling- 
motion  shoe). 

Fig.  115. 


Shoe  with  heel-calks  for  a  front  hoof. 


A  Shoe  with  Heel-Calks. — All  shoes  with  heel-calks  de- 
signed for  healthy  hoofs  should  be  so  made  and  applied  that 
they  will  disturb  the  normal  setting  down  of  the  foot  as  little 
as  possible,  that  the  wear  of  the  shoe  will  take  place  uniformly, 

and  slipping  be  dimin- 
F^<^-  114.  iglied.     The  toe  of  the 

shoe  must,  therefore, 
be  left  somewhat 
thicker  than  the 
branches  just  in  front 
of  the  heel-calks.  More- 
over, every  front  shoe 
with  heel-calks  must  be 
relatively  long,  and  be 
provided  with  consider- 
able rolling  motion  at  the  toe ;  that  is,  the  shoe  should  be  turned 
up  at  the  toe,  the  bending  beginning  near  the  inner  edge  of  the 
web.  The  three-  or  four-cornered,  someAvhat  conical  heel-calks 
with  rounded  corners  should  not  be  higher  than  the  thickness  of 
the  shoe.  With  reference  to  the  direction  of  the  ends  of  the 
branches,  we  should  see  to  it  that  they  do  not  rise  excessively, 
but  that  they  assume  as  near  as  possible  a  horizontal  direction 
in  passing  back  to  the  heels  (see  Fig.  115). 

A  Shoe  with  Toe-  and  Heel-Calks. — Such  a  shoe  should 
be  of  uniform  thickness  from  end  to  end,  and  should  have  a 
toe-calk  and  two  heel-calks  that  are  somewhat  stronger  and 
longer  than  the  heel-calks  of  a  shoe  which  has  no  tocK^alk.  If 
to  a  shoe  of  uniform  thickness,  on  w^hich  the  heel-calks  are 
somewhat  higher  than  those  already  described,  a  piece  of  steel 
(Fig.  116,  b)  of  the  height  of  the  heel-calks  is  welded  at  the 
toe,  we  have  a  shoe  with  toe-  and  heel-calks.  The  toe-calk 
should  never  be  higher  than  the  heel-calks.  There  are  three 
principal  kinds  of  toe-calks, — ^namely : 

1.  The  Sharp  Toe-Calk. — A  bar  of  toe-steel  of  proper  width 
and  thickness  for  the  toe-calk  is  thrust  with  the  shoe  into  the 


HORSESHOEING. 


113 


Fig.  116. 


fire.  When  the  end  of  the  bar  is  cherry-red  in  color  it  is  with- 
drawn, laid  across  the  straight  hardy,  and  cut  nearly  through 
at  a  point  a  calk-length  from  the  end.  Bar  and  shoe  are  then 
brought  to  a  welding  heat,  the  calk  quickly  and  securely  welded 
across  the  toe  of  the  shoe,  the  bar  wrenched  away,  the  calk  gone 
over  again  -with  the  hammer,  when  it  is  immediately  beaten  out 
to  a  sharp  edge  from  the  anterior  face,  either  over  the  far  edge 
of  the  anvil,  or  in  a  foot-vise.  The  posterior  face  of  a  sharp 
toe^calk  should  be  perpendicular  to  the  ground-surface  of  the 
shoe.  Machiner-made  toe-calks, — sharp,  half-sharp  and  blunt, 
provided  with  a  sharp  spud  at  one  or  both  ends,  are  in  general 
use.  Their  use  requires 
two  heats,  and  the  sharp 
calk  is  blunted  in  the 
welding. 

2.  The  Blunt  Toe- 
Calk. — It  is  a  rather  long 
rectangular  piece  of  toe- 
steel,  straight,  or  curved  to 
conform  to  the  toe  of  the 
shoe.  The  shoe-surface 
and  the  ground-surface  of 
the  calk  are  of  equal  di- 
mensions.    It    should    be 

-r^^l-J^J    ^^    :«    ^^^  l,„«4-  Right  hind  shoe  with  toe- and  heel-calks:  a,  heel- 

Welded   on    m   one   heat.  ealks;  6,  toe-calk;  c.  greatest  width  of  the  base  of 

3      The         Hdlf-SllCLVD  ^'^PPO'*  ('•''•'  contact  with  the  ground)  of  this  shoe 

'^                "  when  without  toe-  and  heel-calks;  d,  the  greatest, 

Toe-CalJc    (Coffin-I/id   Toe-  and  «,  the  least  width  of  the  base  of  support  of  this 

„      ,   .                                   ,  shoe  with  calks. 

Calk). — It   resembles   the 

blimt  calk,  except  that  the  surface  of  the  calk  that  Is  applied 
to  the  shoe  is  somewhat  broader  and  longer  than  the  sur- 
face that  comes  in  contact  with  the  ground.  It  is  welded  on 
in  one  heat.  The  first  and  third  kinds  are  most  suitable  for 
winter. 

Since  heel-  and  toe-calks  raise  the  hoof  far  from  the  ground 
and   prevent  all  pressure  upon  the  frog,   they  diminish  the 
8 


114  HORSESHOEING. 

elasticity  of  the  hoof  and  injure  it.  They  are  injurious  also 
to  the  joints,  because  they  furnish  a  base  of  support  which  is 
essentially  smaller  than  that  afforded  by  a  flat  shoe  (Fig.  116). 
However,  they  are  indispensable  for  heavy  draft  purposes 
on  slippery  roads  and  in  winter.  Upon  all  other  roads  and  in 
summer  they  are  superfluous,  at  least  upon  front  hoofs,  es- 
pecially as  they  do  not  wholly  prevent  slipping. 

Special  Properties. — The  many  different  fomis  of  hoofs  re- 
quire a  great  vai-iety  of  shoes.  Following  are  the  special 
peculiarities  of  each  of  the  chief  classes  of  shoes. 

1.  Shoe  for  a  Regular  Hoof. — Outer  edge :  moderately  base- 
narrow  (bevelled  under)  all  around.  Distribution  and  direction 
of  the  nail-holes :  regular.  Length :  longer  than  the  hoof  by  the 
thickness  of  the  shoe  (see  Figs.  121  and  122). 

2.  Shoe  for  an  Acute-Angled  Hoof. — Outer  edge:  strongly 
base-narrow  around  the  toe,  but  gi*adually  becoming  perpendicu- 
lar towards  the  ends  of  the  branches.  Punching:  regular,  ex- 
cept tbat  the  nail-holes  at  the  toe  must  incline  inward  some- 
what more  than  usual.  Length:  rather  longer  than  the  pre- 
ceding shoe  (see  Fig.  123). 

3.  Shoe  for  an  Upnght  (stumpy)  Hoof. — Outer  edge:  per- 
pendicular at  the  toe;  but  if  the  hoof  is  very  steep,  then  base- 
wide  at  the  toe, — i.e.,  bevelled  downward  and  outward.  Punch- 
ing: last  nail  should  be  placed  just  beyond  the  middle  of  the 
shoe.  Direction  of  the  holes :  perpendicular.  Length :  short ;  at 
most,  one^ighth  of  an  inch  longer  than  the  hoof.  In  the  ease 
of  a  "bear-foot"  (see  Fig.  TO)  the  shoe  should  be  long. 

4.  Shoe  for  a  Base-Wide  Hoof. — Outer  edge;  the  outer 
branch  should  be  moderately  base-narrow, — i.e.,  bevelled  down- 
ward and  inward,  the  inner  branch  perpendicular.  Punching: 
upon  the  outer  branch  the  holes  should  extend  well  back,  while 
upon  the  inner  branch  they  are  to  be  crowded  forward  towards 
the  toe  (see  Fig.  117).  Length  will  depend  upon  the  obliquity 
of  the  hoof  as  seen  in  profile  (see  1,  2,  and  3). 

5.  Shoe  for  a  Base-Narrow  Hoof. — Outer  edge:  the  outer 
branch   either  perpendicular  or  base-wide,   the   inner  branch 


HORSESHOEING. 


115 


strongly  base-narrow.  Punching:  the  nail-holes  in  the  outer 
branch  should  be  crowded  towards  the  toe  and,  under  certain 
conditions,  punched  deeper  than  the  wall  is  thick,  on  account 
of  the  greater  width  of  this  branch ;  in  the  inner  branch  the 
nail-holes  are  to  be  distributed  back  to  the  quarter  and  punched 
light  (see  Fig.  118).  Length  will  depend  upon  the  obliquity 
of  the  hoof.  The  outer  branch  should  be  about  one-fourth  of 
an  inch  longer  than  the  inner. 

6.  8hoe  for  ci  Wide  Hoof. — Somewhat  wider  webbed  (more 


Fig.  117. 


Fig.  118. 


A  right  front  shoe  for  a  base-wide  (toe- 
wide)  hoof.  The  inner  branch  should  be 
about  one-fourth  of  an  inch  longer  than 
the  outer. 


A  right  front  shoe  for  a  base-narrow 
(toe-narrow)  hoof.  The  outer  branch  is 
wider  and  one-fourth  of  an  inch  longer 
than  the  inner. 


covered)  than  usual.  Outer  edge:  bevelled  under  the  foot  all 
around  (base-narrow).  Punching:  nail-holes  carried  back  into 
the  posterior  half  of  the  shoe  (see  Fig.  119).  Length  will 
depend  upon  the  obliquity  of  the  hoof. 

Y.  Shoe  for  a  Narrow  Hoof. — Outer  edge:  moderately 
bevelled  under  the  foot  at  the  toe  (base-narrow),  elsewhere 
perpendicular.  Distribution  of  the  nail-holes :  regular.  Direc- 
tion of  the  nail-holes:  perpendicular  and  towards  the  quarters, 
inclining  somewhat  outward.     The  holes  about  the  toe  incline 


116 


HORSESHOEING. 


somewhat  inward.     Lengtli  will  dei:)eud  upon  the  obliquity  of 
the  hoof.     Concaving  unnecessary  (see  Fig.  120). 

The  forms  of  shoes  described  in  paragi-aphs  2  to  7  differ 
from  that  described  in  paragraph  1,  but  are  necessary  in  order 
to  lessen  the  injurious  consequences  of  irregular  loading  (un- 
balancing) of  the  feet,  and  of  unfavorable  bases  of  support  of 
the  body-weight. 

Fig.  120. 
Fig.  119. 


Flat  shoe  for  a  round  hoof  (right  front). 


A  left  front  shoe  for  a  narrow  hoof. 
conca^■ing  is  unnecessarj*. 


G.  Choosing  the  Shoe. 

The  choice  of  the  shoe  for  a  given  horse  is  not  at  all  difficult 
after  we  have  carefully  considered  his  weight,  the  nature  of  his 
work,  his  standing  position,  gait,  the  form  of  his  hoofs,  and 
quality  of  the  horn,  bearing  in  mind  the  general  and  peculiar 
properties  of  shoes.  As  a  rule,  we  choose  a  shoe  that  is  longer 
than  the  hoof,  because  the  latter  grows  and  carries  the  shoe 
forward  with  it,  and  because  the  quarters  gradually  become 
lowered  by  rubbing  and  wearing  away  upon  the  branches  of 
the  shoe.  The  length  of  the  shoe  is  of  e-special  importance. 
■For  horses  employed  for  slow,  heavy-draft  purposes  the  shoe 
supplied  with  heel-  and  toe-calks  should  extend  backward  far 


HORSESHOEING.  117 

enough  to  support  the  bulbs  of  the  heels.  On  the  contrary, 
horses  used  at  a  trot  or  gallop,  as  coach-  and  saddle-horses, 
require  shorter  shoes  (see  Eig.  124). 

The  iveight  of  the  shoe  should  be  so  adjusted  to  the  demands 
of  the  horse's  work,  the  condition  of  tlie  legs  (whether  used  up 
with  work  or  not),  and  the  nature  of  the  ground  that  the  shoeing 
will  last  at  least  a  month.  Hard  roads  and  a  heavy,  clumsy 
gait  require  strong,  durable  shoes,  which,  under  some  con- 
ditions, are  to  be  rendered  still  more  durable  by  welding  in 
steel.  For  moderate  service  upon  soft  roads  we  should  use 
light  shoes.  Running  horses  require  unusually  thin  and  narrow 
shoes  of  steel  (see  Figs.  125-128). 

H.  Shaping  and  Fitting  Shoes.     General  Considerations. 

This  is  one  of  the  most  important  parts  of  horseshoeing. 
Its  object  is  to  so  fashion  or  shape  the  shoe  which  has  been 
chosen  for  a  particular  hoof  that  its  circumference  will  exactly 
correspond  to  the  lower  circumference  of  the  previously  pre- 
pared hoof,  and  its  bearing-surface  will  fit  air-tight  to  the  bear- 
ing-surface of  the  hoof.  At  this  time  all  defects  in  the  surfaces 
of  hoof  and  shoe  and  in  the  nail-holes  must  be  remedied,  the 
clips  dra^vn  up,  and  the  shoe  made  to  fit  perfectly.  The  bear- 
ing-surface of  the  shoe,  especially  at  the  ends  of  the  branches, 
must  be  kept  horizontal*  and  'smooth,  and  its  width  regulated 
by  the  width  of  the  bearing  surface  of  the  hoof  (see  page  99). 
Perfectly  uniform  heating  is  absolutely  indispensable  in  shap- 
ing the  shoe,  because  an  irregularly  heated  shoe  twists  or 
becomes  distorted  at  the  warm  places.  Every  shoe  should  be 
straight,  and  when  held  before  the  eye  one  branch  should  exactly 
cover  the  other.  A  flat  shoe  laid  upon  a  level  surface  should 
touch  at  all  parts  of  its  ground-surface;  the  only  exception  to 

*  The  horizontal  bearing-surface  is  in  accordance  with  nature, 
because  the  changes  of  form  of  the  hoof  which  take  place  at  the 
plantar  border  of  the  wall,  on  burdening  and  unburdening  the  foot, 
should  not  be  interfered  with.  A  horizontal  bearing-surface  bast  fulfils 
this  requirement. 


118  HORSESHOEING. 

this  is  the  shoe  with  a  rolleid  toe  (rolling  motion),  in  which  the 
toe  is  turned  upward.  A  shoe  is  termed  "  trough-shaped  "  when 
only  the  inner  edge  of  the  web  rests  upon  the  flat  surface.  It  is 
faulty,  disturbs  the  stability  of  the  foot,  and  shifts  the  weight 
of  the  body  too  much  upon  the  quarters. 

To  front  shoes  we  give  a  rolled  toe  (Eig.  121,  rolling 
motion),  by  which  we  mean,  a  more  or  less  pronounced  upward 
turn  of  the  toe  of  the  shoe.  Ordinarily,  the  toe  begins  to  turn 
up  at  the  middle  of  the  web,  and  should  be  elevated  about  one- 
half  the  thickness  of  the  iron.     The  rolled  to©  corresponds  to 

Fig.  121. 


Shod  fore-hoof  viewed  in  profile  to  show  the  "roll"  at  the  toe. 

the  natural  wear  of  front  hoofs,  facilitates  the  "  breaking  over  " 
of  the  feet,  and  insures  a  uniform  wear  of  the  shoe  (see  Fig. 
86).  The  shoe  is  made  moderately  hot  and  placed  on  the  foot 
with  the  toe-clip  against  the  wall  exactly  in  front  of  the  point 
of  the  frog.  The  scorched  horn  should  be  repeatedly  removed 
with  the  rasp  until  a  perfect-fitting  bed  has  been  made  upon 
the  bearing-surface  of  the  hoof.  From  the  bearing-surface  of 
the  shoe  to  the  inner  border  of  the  web  the  iron  must  be  free 
from  the  sole  around  its  entire  circumference.  The  horn  sole 
should  not  be  burnt,  because  the  velvety  tissue  of  the  sole  lies 
immediately  above  it.  In  the  region  of  the  nail-holes  the  outer 
borders  of  shoe  and  wall  should  correspond.    The  nail-holes 


HORSESHOEING. 


119 


Fig.  122. 


must  under  all  conditions  cover  the  white  line.  From  the  last 
nail-hole  back  to  the  ends  of  the  branches,  for  hoofs  of  the 
regular  standing  position  of  the  limbs,  the  shoe  should  gradually 
widen  until  it  projects  at  each  quarter  from  a  sixteenth  to  an 
eighth  of  an  inch  beyond  the  edge  of  the  wall.  The  posterior 
half  of  the  shoe  shoidd,  tlierefore,  be  somewhat  wider  than  the 
hoof.  The  effect  of  this  will  be  to  prolong  the  usefulness  of  the 
shoes.  With  respect  to  the  width  of  the  branches,  an  exception 
arises  in  the  case  of  hind 
shoes,  in  which  the  inner 
branch,  with  few  exceptions, 
should  closely  follow  the  bor- 
der of  the  wall ;  this  will  pre- 
vent interfering  and  tearing 
off  the  shoe  by  the  opposite 
foot. 

Between  the  ends  of  the 
branches  and  the  frog  there 
should  be  enough  room,  with 
iew  exceptions,  to  pass  a 
foot-pick. 

In  order  to  judge  of  the 
width  of  a  shoe  which  has 
been  fitted  to  the  hoof,  it  is 
of  advantage  to  seize  the  hoof 
in  the  left  hand  and,  extending  it  towards  the  ground,  to 
observe  from  behind  and  above  the  outer  border  of  the  shoe 
and  the  surfaces  of  the  wall. 

Furthermore,  the  most  important  rule  is  that  the  shoe  should 
always  have  the  form  of  the  foot,  so  long  as  the  form  of  the  hoof 
remains  unaltered.  In  all  hoofs  that  have  already  undergone 
change  of  form  we  must  strive  to  give  the  shoe  that  form  which 
the  hoof  had  before  it  underwent  change.  Such  treatment  will 
not  only  do  the  hoof  no  injury,  but,  on  the  contrary,  is  of 
advantage  to  it,  as  it  is  well  known  that  in  time  the  hoof  will 
acquire  the  form  of  the  shoe. 


Left  fore-hoof  of  normal  position  shod. 


120  HORSESHOEING. 

Shaping  and  Fitting  Shoes.     Special  Considerations. 

{a)  A  shoe  for  a  hoof  of  the  regular  form  fits  properly  when 
the  outer  border  of  the  shoe  in  the  region  of  the  nail-holes  closely 
follows  the  outer  edge  of  the  wall,  but  from  the  last  nail-hole  to 
the  end  of  each  branch  extends  beyond  the  wall  from  a  sixteenth 
to  an  eighth  of  an  inch,  the  shoe  is  straight,  lies  firmly  and  air- 
tight upon  the  bearing-surface  of  the  hoof,  the  nail-holes  fall 
exactly  upon  the  white  line,  and  there  is  sufficient  space  between 
the  frog  and  the  branches  of  the  shoe  for  the  passage  of  a  foot- 
pick.     The  branches  must  be  of  equal  length. 

While  in  fitting  a  shoe  to  a  hoof  of  regidar  form  we  need 
pay  attention  only  to  the  form  of  the  hoof,  it  is  very  different 
when  we  come  to  shape  and  fit  shoes  to  hoofs  of  irregular  forms. 
In  these  cases  we  must  consider  not  only  the  form  of  the  hoof, 
hut  the  position  of  the  Umhs  and  the  distrihution  of  weight  itv 
the  hoof,  because  where  the  most  weight  falls  the  surface  of 
support  of  the  foot  must  be  widened,  and  where  least  weight 
falls  (on  the  opposite  side)  the  surface  of  support  must  be 
narrowed.  In  tliis  manner  tlie  improper  distribution  of  weight 
within  the  hoof  (an  unbalanced  foot)  is  regulated, — that  is,  is 
evenly  distributed  over  the  surface  of  support.  The  manner 
in  which  this  is  accomplished  in  the  various  forms  of  hoofs  is 
as  follows : 

(h)  An  acute-angled  hoof  requires  the  shoe  described  in 
paragraph  2,  page  114.  The  branches  must  be  long,  because 
more  of  the  weight  falls  in  the  posterior  half  of  the  foot,  and 
long  branches  extend  the  surface  of  support  backward,  while 
the  'surface  of  support  in  front  is  to  be  diminished  by  making 
the  toe  of  the  shoe  base-narrow,  either  by  turning  it  up  or  by 
bevelling  it  in  under  the  foot.  A  shoe  for  an  acute-angled  hoof 
fits  when  it  is  otherwise  related  to  the  hoof  as  is  described  in 
paragraph  a,  above. 

(c)  An  upright  or  stumpy  hoof  presents  exactly  reverse 
conditions  with  respect  to  the  distribution  of  weight  within 


HORSESHOEING.  121 

the  hoof,  and  is  treated  in  an  exactly  opposite  manner.  The 
surface  of  support  should  be  increased  at  the  toe  and  diminished 
at  the  quarters.  This  is  accomplished  by  a  shoe  possessing  the 
peculiarities  described  in  paragraph  3,  page  114,  whose  nail- 
holes  are  directed  either  straight  or  slightly  outward. 

(d)  A  base-ivide  hoof  requires  the  surface  of  'support  to  be 
wddened  upon  the  inner  side  of  the  foot  and  narrowed  upon  the 
outer  side,  because  the  inner  half  of  the  foot  bears  the  more 
weight.  A  shoe  having  the  peculiarities  described  in  paragraph 
4,  page  114,  accomplishes  this  end. 

(e)  The  base-narroiv  hoof  is  just  the  reverse  of  the  preced- 
ing, and  requires  a  shoe  whose  peculiarities  are  described  in 
paragraph  5,  page  114.    Wliile  in  the  normal  standing  position 

Fig.  123. 


The  three  principal  forms  of  hoofs  shod  with  flat  shoes. 

of  the  limbs,  viewed  from  in  front,  the  ends  of  the  branches 
of  the  shoe  should  be  equally  distant  from  the  middle  of  the 
median  lacuna  of  the  frog,  this  is  not  so  in  the  base-wide  and 
base-narrow  positions.  In  the  base-wide  position  the  outer  and 
in  the  base-narrow  position  the  inner  branch  should  be  some- 
what farther  from  the  median  lacuna  than  the  branch  of  the 
opposite  side. 

(/)  The  wide  hoof  has  too  large  a  surface  of  support,  and, 
therefore,  the  shoe  designed  for  it  should  possess  the  peculiar- 
ities enumerated  in  paragraph  6,  page  115. 

(g)  The  narrow  hoof  has  already  too  narrow  a  base  of  sup- 
port, and  must  not  be  made  smaller ;  therefore,  the  shoe  should 
not  have  a  base-narrow  but  a  perpendicular  outer  border,  as 
described  in  paragraph   7,  page  115. 


122 


HORSESHOEING. 


Shoeing  Saddlers  and  Hunters. 

The  shoes  for  saddlers  (Park  Hacks)  should  be  light,  short, 
and  fitted  snug  to  prevent  forging,  interfering  and  pulling  of 
the  shoes.  The  hoof  surface  should  cover  the  wall,  white  line 
and  at  least  one^fourth  of  an  inch  of  the  margin  of  the  sole. 
An  average  width  of  one  inch  is  desirable.  Both  front  and 
hind  shoes  should  be  fullered  and  concaved  on  the  ground  sur- 
face (convex  iron).  The  Front  Shoe: — Length,  should  not  pro- 
ject beyond  the  buttress  more  than  one-eighth  of  an  inch.   Width, 

Fig.  124. 


A  right  front  shoe  with  forging  calks;  suitable  for  a  saddle  horse,  or  hunter  (convex  iron). 

an  inch  at  the  middle  on  the  branches,  somewhat  more  at  the 
toe,  and  less  at  the  ends  of  the  branches.  Bevelling,  outer- 
border,  base-narrow  all  around.  The  ends  of  the  branches,  and 
the  heel  calks,  in  case  they  are  used,  are  bevelled  strongly  down- 
ward and  forward  under  the  foot.  The  toe  is  rolled  from  the 
inner  edge  of  the  web,  and  provided  with  a  strong  central  clip. 
Six  nails  are  sufficient  ('see  Fig.  124). 

The  Hind  Shoe: — Length,  the  shoe  may  project  from  one- 
fourth  to  three-eisiiths  of  an  inch  behind  the  buttresses.     The 


HORSESHOEING.  123 

toe  should  be  well  rounded  and  somewhat  blunt  so  that  the 
horn  of  the  toe  will  project  beyond  the  shoe  an  amount  equal  to 
one-half  the  thickness  of  the  wall.  Width,  somewhat  less  than 
the  front  shoe.  The  branches  are  of  equal  thickness,  and  should 
carry  heel  calks  whose  height  equals  the  thickness  of  the 
shoe.  To  guard  against  interfering  the  inside  calk  may  be 
omitted  and  the  innei*  branch  thickened,  fitted  snug  and  bevelled 
strongly  base-narrow.  Clips  are  to  be  placed  at  inner  and  outer 
toes.     Seven  nails  are  sufficient. 

The  shoes  for  hunters  do  not  differ  materially  from  those 
suitable  for  Park  Hacks.  The  hunter's  shoes  are  somewhat 
lighter,  and  to  g-uard  against  injury  to  the  feet  by  over-reaching 
and  interfering,  and  against  the  shoes  being  pulled  by  stiff  mire 
and  by  treading,  the  shoes  must  represent  merely  a  prolongation 
of  the  hoofs,  i.e.,  must  be  no  longer  and  no  wider  than  the  hoofs 
themselves.  The  front  shoe  of  narrow,  convex  iron  is  rolled  at 
the  toe  and  has  a  central  toe  clip.  Forging  heel  calks  are 
advisable. 

The  hind  shoe  is  set  back  at  the  toe,  carries  inner  and  outer 
toe  clips,  an  outer  heel  calk  and  an  inner  interfering  branch. 
Seven  nails. 

Shoeing  Runners. 

Racing  plates  are  intended  solely  to  prevent  excessive  wear 
and  breaking  away  of  the  wall,  and  to  insure  a  secure  foothold 
upon  the  ground.  The  shoes  are  made  as  light  as  possible, 
but  they  must  not  be  so  narrow  and  thin  that  they  will  bend 
or  break.  They  are  therefore  made  of  steel,  wide  enough  to 
cover  the  bearing  surface  of  the  wall,  white  line,  and  an  eighth 
of  an  inch  of  the  sole.  The  ground  surface  is  divided  into  two 
sharjD  edge's  by  a  deep,  clean,  fullering  continued  entirely 
around  the  shoe.  Heel  calks  are  of  no  advantage.  Front  and 
hind  shoes  carry  six  nails.  The  last  nails  are  well  back  in  the 
quarters  to  prevent  the  spreading  or  bending  of  the  light  shoe. 
Front  shoes  are  provided  -with  central  toe-clips ;    hind  shoes 


124 


HORSESHOEING. 


carry  inner  and  outer  toe  clips  and  are  set  slightly  under  at 
the  toe  (see  Figs.  125,  126,  127,  128).  An  average  weight 
running  plate  for  a  medium-sized  hoof  is  three  to  four  ounces. 


Fig.  125. 


Fig.  126. 


A  fore  running  plate,  hoof-surfa 

Fig.  127. 


A  fore  running  plate,  ground-surface. 

Fig.  128. 


A  hind  running  plate,  hoof-surface.  A  hind  running  plate,  ground-surface. 

Shoeing  Trotters  and  Pacers. 

The  shoes  worn  while  the  trotter  or  pacer  is  in  training  are 
somewhat  heavier  than  those  worn  while  racing.  Training 
shoes  will  average  40  ounces  to  the  set,  while  trotting  and 
pacing  plates  weigh  from  16  to  28  ounces  to  the  set.     Of  the  six 


HORSESHOEING.  125 

fastest  trotters  during  the  last  year  (1912)  the  average  weight 
of  the  front  shoes  was  6%  ounces,  of  the  hind  shoes  4  ounces. 
Of  the  seven  swiftest  pacei's  of  the  same  year  the  front  shoes 
averaged  5^2  ounceis,  and  the  hind  shoes  3%  ounces.  In  short, 
extreme  speed  at  running,  pacing  or  trotting  demands  as  light  a 
shoe  as  can  be  made,  which  will  at  the  same  time  furnish  a 
hearing  for  wall,  white  line  and  a  narrow  rim  of  the  sole. 

In  style  of  shoes  there  is  no-  marked  difference  between 
trotters  and  pacers — except  in  the  hind  shoes  of  pacers  that 
cross-fire  (see  cross-firing,"  p.  140).  Open  shoes  predominate. 
Bar-shoes  are  used,  not  to  give  frog  pressure,  but  to  stiffen  and 
prevent  spreading  of  the  'shoe,  when  after  a  few  days'  wear 
it  becomes  thin  at  the  toe.  The  average  trotting  and  pacing 
plate  is  so  thin  that  it  would  be  weakened  by  fullering,  so  most 
of  them  are  stamped  (punched).  Six  nails  are  sufficient.  Clips 
are  seldom  needed. 

Pacers  usually  require  a  low  circular  grab  or  "  rim  "  at  the 
toe.  This  is  set  flush  with  the  outer  border,  is  about  one-eighth 
of  an  inch  high  and  is  brazed  on.  Trotting  plates  are  usually 
without  toe  calks,  though  many  are  fullered  across  the  toe  (cor- 
rugated) to  furnish  a  grip  upon  the  ground. 

On  both  trotting  and  pacing  shoes  the  heel  calks  should  be 
low  and  sharp  and  should  run  straight  forward  so  as  not  to 
retard  the  for^vard  glide  of  the  foot  as  it  is  set  to  earth  heel 
first.  The  heel  calk  serves  chiefly  to  prevent  the  lateral  twist 
of  the  foot  a's  the  horse  takes  the  sharp  turns  of  the  track. 

Freak  shoes,  toe- weights,  side-weights,  excessive  length  of 
hoof  or  toe,  and  other  unscientific  appliances  and  methods  of 
shoeing  speed  horses  are  being  gradually  eliminated,  and  to- 
day the  fastest  are  dressed  and  shod  in  accordance  with  the 
principles  enunciated  in  this  book. 

Fitting  Shoes  to  Heavy  Draft-Horses. 

What  has  been  previously  said  concerning  shoeing  holds 
good  here;  however,  the  conditions  of  shoeing  are  somewhat 
different  in  heavy  horses,  and  particularly  with  respect  to  hoofs 


126 


HORSESHOEING. 


which,  without  being  clearly  diseased,  have  been  injured  by 
shoeing.  The  entire  operation  requires  more  circumspection, 
because  it  is  more  difficult.  In  many  cases  one  will  find  that 
the  width  that  has  been  advised  for  the  outer  branch  of  the 
shoe  at  the  quarter  is  not  sufficient.  Indeed,  if  a  horse  has  wry 
feet,  and  there  is  unequal  distribution  of  weight  within  the 
hoof,  and  we  attempt  in  shoeing  it  to  follow  to  the  letter  the 
directions  given  on  preceding  pages,  we  would  be  apt  to  favor 
the  perpetuation  of  the  defect.  In  such  cases  the  slant  of 
the  wall  at  the  quarters  is  of  the  great- 
est practical  value  to  us  in  estimating 
the  proper  width  for  the  shoe  at  this 
point. 

When  uniform  setting  down  of  the 
hoof  and  uniform  wear  of  the  shoe  are 
desired,  every  point  in  the  coronary 
band  in  the  posterior  half  of  the  foot 
must  receive  support  by  the  shoe.  This 
applies  particularly  to  the  outer  halves 
of  hoofs  that  are  extremely  base-nar- 
row. If,  for  example,  the  coronet  of 
the  outer  quarter  projects  beyond  the 
plantar  border  of  the  quarter,  the  outer 
branch  of  the  shoe  from  the  last 
nail-hole  back  must  be  kept  so  wide 
(full)  that  an  imaginary  perpendicular  line  dropped  from 
the  coronary  band  will  just  touch  the  outer  border  of 
the  shoe.  The  inner  branch,  on  the  contrary,  should  follow 
the  edge  of  the  wall  a's  closely  as  possible.  Eurthermore,  the 
new  shoe  should  be  given  more  curve, — ^that  is,  made  wider  and 
fitted  more  full  where  the  old  shoe  shows  greatest  wear.  The 
principal  thought  should  he  to  set  the  shoe,  which  should  always 
he  regarded  as  the  hase  of  support  of  the  hoof,  farther  towards 
the  more  strongly  worn  side.  Such  a  practice  renders  super- 
fluous the  wide-spread  and  popular  custom  of  bending  outward 


Left  hind  shoe  with  a  broad, 
base-wide  outer  branch  for 
draft-horses  that  stand  markedly 
base-narrow    (close   behind). 


HORSESHOEING.  127 

the  outer  quarter  and  heel-calk  of  hind  shoes.  From  the  manner 
in  which  a  horse  travels  and  the  wear  of  the  old  shoe,  we  esti- 
mate the  distance  that  the  branches  of  the  shoe  should  be  set 
from  the  middle  line  of  the  hoof.  If  in  following  out  this  plan 
the  bearing-surface  of  the  outer  quarter  of  the  wall  is  not  com- 
pletely covered,  the  quarter  will  be  pinched  and  squeezed  in- 
wai'd ;  this  should  be  prevented  by  a  broader  branch  punched  so 
deeply  that  the  holes  will  fall  upon  the  white  line  (Fig.  129). 

When  the  shoer  has  satisfied  himself  that  the  shoe  fulfils 
every  requirement  and  fits  perfectly,  it  is  to  be  cooled,  tlie  holes 
opened  with  an  oiled  pritchel,  and  the  shoe  brightened  with  a 
file.  In  filing,  all  sharp  edges  should  be  removed.  If  a  shoe 
is  to  be  filed  upon  the  outer  border,  to  give  it  a  neater  appear- 
ance, the  filing  should  be  done  lengthways  of  the  shoe,  and  not 
crossways;  of  course,  the  shoe  must  not  be  bent  by  being  im- 
properly clamped  in  the  vise. 

It  indicates  much  greater  skill  in  making  and  fitting  shoes 
when  they  look  clean  and  finished  with  little  or  no  filing. 

In  the  preceding  remarks  I  have  insisted  upon  a  horizontal  bear- 
ing-surface for  all  shoes,  with  the  single  exception  of  shoes  provided 
with  the  rolled  toe  (rolling  motion).  As  far  as  I  can  judge  from  the 
literature  of  shoeing,  and  from  what  I  have  seen  with  my  own  eyes  in 
many  countries,  this  is  the  most  wide-spread  practice.  In  Germany, 
on  the  other  hand,  there  is  another  method,  followed  in  the  militaiy 
shoeing-shops,  which  consists  in  placing  the  bearing -surf  ace  of  the  shoe 
as  nearly  as  possible  at  right  angles  to  the  slant  of  the  ivall.  Accord- 
ing to  this  method  the  bearing-surface  of  the  shoe,  depending  upon 
the  direction  of  the  wall  (viewed  from  in  front,  from  behind,  and 
from  the  side),  should  incline  more  or  less,  now  backward,  now  in- 
ward, now  horizontal,  and  now  outward.  Shoes  for  wide  hoofs  are 
given  a  bearing-surface  which  inclines  inward,  while  for  narrow  hoofs 
the  shoes  have  a  horizontal  bearing-surface.  Shoes  for  wry  hoofs 
have  a  bearing-surface  which  inclines  downward  and  inward  for  the 
slanting  wall,  and  for  the  steeper  wall  a  horizontal  bearing-surface, 
which  towards  the  end  of  the  branch  may  incline  slightly  downward 
and  outward.  Besides,  the  bearing-surface  of  the  ends  of  the  branches, 
viewed  from  the  side,  has  a  backward  and  downward  inclination.  This 
method  is  practicable  only  in  part. 


128 


HORSESHOEING. 


Fig.  130. 


I.  Nailing  the  Shoe. 

This  is  that  act  of  horseshoeing  by  which  the  shoe  is  fastened 
to  the  hoof  by  special  nails  called  hoof-nails  or  horseshoe-nails, 
which  are  driven  through  the  shoe  and  horny  wall. 

At  present  there  are  hand-made  and  machine-made  horse- 
shoe-nails. Both  kinds  should  be  made  of  the  best  wrought 
iron.  The  nails  must  be  slender,  wedge-shaped,  and  twice  as 
wide  as  they  are  thick.  Thickness  and  length  must  be  in  proper 
relation  to  each  other.  We  should  never  choose  a  nail  which 
is  longer  than  is  absolutely  necessary  to 
hold  the  shoe;  six  to  eight  sizes  are  suffi- 
cient for  aJl  purposes. 

The  rough  nails  (hand-made),  before 
being  used,  must  undergo  a  special  shaping 
to  prepare  them  to  pass  through  the  wall 
easily  and  in  the  desired  direction.  This 
preparation  is  called  shaping  and  bevelling. 
In  doing  this  we  should  see  to  it  that  the 
nails  are  made  smooth,  and  even,  but  are  not 
hammered  harder  than  is  absolutely  neces- 
sary, because  the  lighter  one  can  hammer 
the  nails  the  better  they  will  be. 

Furthermore,  we  must  give  the  nail  that 
form  which  will  insure  its  passing  through 
the  horn  straight  and  not  in  a  curve;  with 
this  object  in  view,  the  nail  is  to  be  slightly 
curved  so  that  the  side  which  is  turned  towards  the  frog  in 
driving  (inside)  will  be  a  little  concave,  the  opposite  side 
convex  (Eigs.  130,  3,  and  131,  No.  10),  since  it  is  known  that 
a  straight  nail  always  passes  through  the  horn  in  a  curve,  and 
not  only  does  not  long  remain  tight,  but  is  quite  likely  to  press 
upon  and  injure  the  soft  tissues  of  the  foot.  (  See,  also,  Nailing. ) 
At  the  point  of  the  nail  the  bevel  is  to  be  so  placed  that  it 
will   form   a   short   one-sided   wedge   with    the   slanting  side 


Hand-made  horseshoe- 
nails,  natural  size,  for  ful- 
lered shoes ( 1  ,not  bevelled) 


HORSESHOEING. 


129 


directed  from  within  to  without  (Eigs.  130,  3,  and  131,  d). 
A  short  bevel  is  suitable  for  nails  that  are  to  be  driven  low, 
while  a  long  bevel  makes  it  possible  to  drive  them  high.  The 
hevel  should  never  form  a  hooJc;  it  must  always  he  straight, 
should  he  sharp  hut  not  thin,  and  under  no  conditions  incom- 
plete (defective). 

Fig.  131. 

6.  6.  7.  8.  9.  10. 


S' 


t  t 


Machine-made  horseshoe-nails  (natural  size)  with  a  low,  wide  head  for  a  fullered  shoe. 
The  last  nail  is  shown  from  one  border;  the  others  from  the  inner  face:  o,  head;  6,  neck; 
c,  shank;  d,  bevel;  e,  point;  /,  inner  face;  g,  outer  face. 


Machine-made  nails,  'smooth,  polished,  bevelled,  and  ready 
for  use,  are,  for  many  reasons,  to  be  preferred  to  hand-made 
nails,  though  the  latter  are  rather  tougher  (see  Fig.  131). 

Before  the  shoe  is  nailed  on  it  should  b©  cooled  and  again 
carefully  examined  by  a  competent  shoer,  who  should  then 
place  it  upon  the  hoof,  where  it  should  be  critically  observed  to 
see  whether  it  really  fulfils  every  requirement  of  a  properly- 


130 


HORSESHOEING. 


fitting  shoe.  Afterwards,  the  least  fault  or  defect  must  be 
remedied,  and  then  the  work  of  nailing  it  begins.  Bj  nailing, 
the  shoe  is  firmly  and  durably  fastened  to  the  hoof,  in  doing 
which  the  horn  of  the  wall  is  spared  so  far  as  possible,  the 
elasticity  of  the  hoof  borne  always  in 
mind,  and  wounding  of  the  pododerm 
entirely  avoided.  The  nails  must  in  all 
cases  penetrate  the  white  line  and  pass 
through  the  wall  in  such  a  straight 
direction  that  they  will  appear  neither 
too  high  nor  too  low  upon  its  outer  sur- 
face. In  the  first  case  there  is  con- 
siderable danger  of  pricking  or  close- 
nailing,  and  in  the  latter  the  nail-holes 
will  tear  out  easily  when  the  nails  are 
being  clinched. 

In  driving  a  nail,  it  should  be  held 
in  the  fingers  as  long  as  possible  in  the 
direction  in  which  it  is  desired  that  it 
shall  pass  through  the  horn.  A  nail 
should  be  driven  cautiously,  with  atten- 
tion to  its  sinking  and  sound,  and  yet 
with  enough  force  so  that  at  each  stroke 
it  will  penetrate  from  one-fifth  to  one- 
fourth  of  an  inch.  The  power  required 
at  each  stroke  will  depend  upon  the 
hardness  of  the  horn  and  the  size  of  the 
nail.  Fearless  driving  and  timorous 
tapping  should  not  be  allowed. 

Nails,  which  at  a  depth  of  five- 
eighths  of  an  inch  are  still  going  soft,  or 
which  bend  and  give  a  dull  sound,  or  cause  pain,  should  be 
immediately  withdrawn. 

According  to  the  size  of  the  horse  and  his  hoofs  the  nails 
should  be  driven  from  five-eighths  to  an  inch  and  five-eighths 


Driving  hammer. 


HORSESHOEING.  131 

high,  and  as  eve^i  as  possible.  A's  soon  as  a  nail  is  driven  its 
point  should  be  immediately  bent  down  towards  the  shoe  in 
order  to  prevent  injuries.  The  heads  of  all  the  nails  should 
then  be  gone  over  witli  a  hammer  and  driven  do^vn  solidly  into 
the  nail-holes,  the  hoof  being  meanwhile  supported  in  the  left 
hand.  Pincers  are  then  held  under  the  bent  nails  and  they  are 
more  sharply  bent  hj  light  blows  upon  the  nail-heads.  The 
points  of  the  nails  are  now  nipped  off  near  the  hoof,  the  horn 
which  has  been  thrown  out  j.ust  below  the  clinches  by  bending 
the  nails  down  is  removed  mth  rasp  or  gouge,  and  the  ends  of 
the  nails  bent  do^\Ti  still  more,  but  not  quite  flush  ^\'ith  the 
wall.  This  operation  is  called  "  clinching."  A  clinching- 
block  or  a  pair  of  ordinary  blacksimith's  pincers  is  then  placed 
under  the  end  of  the  nail,  now  called  a  clinch,  and  by  light 
blows  (in  doing  this  the  nail  must  not  bend  ^vathin  the  wall) 
upon  the  head  the  clinch  is  turned  closer  to  the  surface  of  the 
wall ;  finally,  with  the  front  edge  of  the  nail-hammer  the  clinch 
is  hammered  down  flush  with  the  wall.  On  the  inner  half  of 
the  wall  the  clinches  should  not  be  felt  on  stroking  the  wall 
with  the  fingers.  The  small  amount  of  horn  that  projects 
beyond  the  shoe  around  the  toe  may  be  carefully  rasped  away 
in  the  direction  in  which  the  wall  slants,  but  never  higher  than 
the  clinches;  finally,  the  sharp  lower  edge  of  the  wall  is  to  be 
removed  by  caiTving  the  comer  of  the  rasp  around  between 
the  shoe  and  the  horn. 

A  clinch  is  sufficiently  long  when  it  equals  the  mdth  of 
the  nail  at  that  jwint. 

It  is  of  advantage  to  use  a  shoeing-bock  or  foot-stool  in 
clinching  the  nails  on  the  front  hoofs.  The  hind  hoofs  may  be 
clinched  in  the  hands.  Then  the  horse  should  be  led  out  and 
again  moved  in  order  to  see  whether  or  not  the  new  shoeing  has 
actually  accomplished  what  was  desired.  Finally,  the  entire 
hoof  should  be  given  a  thin  layer  of  hoof-salve. 


132 


HORSESHOEING. 


K.  Horseshoes  More  or  Less  Deficient  in  the  Desirable 
Qualities  Described  on  Pages  107-116. 

Machine  Shoes. 

1.  Machine  SJioes  of  Wrought  Iron. — They  are  half-finished 
and  finished.  Though  machine  shoes  with  few  exceptions  show 
no  distinction  between  front  and  hind,  or  left  and  right,  with 
correct  punching  for  these  different  feet,  but  usuallj  present 
one  form  in  different  sizes,  yet,  unfortunately,  they  are  in 
high  favor  with  horseshoers,  because  they  may  be  used  for 
both  summer  and  winter  and  for  bar  shoes. 


Fig.  133. 


Fig.  134. 


A  machine-made  (drop-forged)  front  shoe, 
ground  surface. 


A  machine-made  toe-weight  front  shoe 
for  a  harness  horse,  showing  ground 
surface.     Punching  good. 


Eor  these  reasons  we  cannot  approve  of  machine  shoes. 

2.  Finished  Cast  Shoes. — They  are  of  four  kinds, — 
ordinary  cast  shoes,  cast  shoes  with  rope  buffer,  cast  shoes  with 
fiber  buffer,  and  cast  shoes  fenestrated  to  hold  a  rubber  buffer. 
Ordinary  cast  shoes  of  correct  form  and  proper  punching 
designed  by  Grosisbauer,  of  Vienna,  are  sold  by  Hannes'  Sons, 
of  that  city. 


HORSESHOEING. 


133 


Rope  Shoes. — These  shoes  have  a  groove  on  the  ground  sur- 
face, in  which  rests  a  tarred  rope,  which  greatly  diminishes 
slipping  on  smooth  pavement.     For  this  reason  alone  they  are' 


Fig.  135. 


Fig.  136. 


Fig.  137. 


Machine-made    (drop-forged)     multi-calk   fore   shoe.     A,   ground-surface;    B,  hoof-surface 
C,  profile. 


Fig.  138. 


Fig.  139. 


Fig.  140. 


Machine-made    (drop    forged)    multi-calk   hind   shoe.     .4,  ground-surface;   B,  hoof-surface; 
C,  profile. 

extensively  used  in  the  large  cities  of  Germany.  Since  the  open 
rope  shoe,  when  half  worn  out,  will  warp,  the  bar  rope  shoe  is 
more  satisfactory  and  more  extensively  used  (Figs.  141-144). 


134 


HORSESHOEING. 


Before  fitting  the  shoe  the  rope  must  be  removed.     After 
the  nails  are  driven  it  is  laid  in  the  groove  and  hammered  into 


Fig.  141. 


Fig.  142. 


Fig.  143. 


Bar  rope  shoe  with  bar 
bent  forward. 


The     same     with     bar 
bent  backward. 


The   same   with   beak- 
formed  bar. 


Fig.  144. 


An  open  rope  shoe. 


place.     Rope  shoes  can  seldom  be  fitted  properly  to  hoofs  other 
than  those  which  are  healthy  and  of  regular  shape. 

Fiber  Shoes. — These  have   a   groove 

on  the  ground  surface  into  which  layers 

of  linen  fiber  belting  have  been  tightly 

pressed.     The  fiber  cannot  be  removed, 

and  therefore  the  shoes  cannot  be  heated, 

but  must  be  fitted  cold.     The  nail-holes 

are   placed    between   the   fiber   and   the 

outer  border  of  the  shoe,  and  are  punched 

too  light.      The  bearing  surface  of  the 

shoe   is  unsupported,  'so  that  when  the 

shoe  is  half  worn  out,  it  warps.     There 

is  no  distinction  between  rights  and  lefts. 

Rubber  shoes  have  all  the  defects  of  fiber  shoes,  and  one 

more.     The  hoof  surface  is  covered  with  canvas,  which  under 

normal  and  acute-angled  hoofs  wears  through  under  the  quarters 

and  leads  to  loosening  of  the  last  nails. 


HORSESHOEING. 


135 


Fig.  145. 


L.  Rubber  Pads. 

The  increasing  use  of  asphalt,  tarvia  and  other  hard,  smooth 
and  slippery  materials  for  surfacing  citj  streets  and  country- 
highways  has  not  only  made  travelling  in  flat  and  even  in 
calked  'shoes  precarious,  but  has  aggravated  all  those  injuries 
produced  by  concussion. 

To  prevent  slipping  and  the  injurious  effects  of  concussion 
a  great  many  shoes  have  been  devised,  in  which  are  incor- 
porated such  materials 
as  hemp  rope,  linen  fibre, 
papier  mache,  cork,  wood, 
bast,  felt  and  rubber,  but 
all  fail  in  greater  or  les- 
ser degree  to  meet  prac- 
tical requirements. 

Rubber,  though  the 
most  expensive  of  these 
materials,  is  the  most 
resilient  and  takes  the 
best  grip  on  smooth  pave- 
ment. A  pad  of  rubber, 
wide  enough  to  cover  the 

branches       of       the       frog  a  light  driving  pad,  gummed  and  stitched  to  a 

alone,   or  the  branches   of  leather  sole;  seen  from  the  ground  surface  and  in  pro- 

"  file.     Used  with  a  seven-  to  ten-ounce  short  shoe,     a, 

■the      frog'      and      the      but-  stitching;   b,   rubber  bar  under  buttress  and  frog;  c, 

tresses  of  the  hoof,  firmly 

cemented  to  a  leather  sole,  constitutes  the  modem  rubber  pad 

(Figs.  145,  146,  147). 

The  frog-and-buttress  pad  used  with  a  short  shoe  is  to  be 
preferred  to  the  earlier  frog  pad  which  takes  a  full  shoe. 

The  advantages  of  rubber  pads  are: 

1.  They  prevent  slipping  upon  asphalt  and  other  smooth, 
dry  surfaces. 

2.  They    diminish    concussaon,    and    are   valuable   in    the 


136 


HORSESHOEING. 


prevention  and  treatment  of  sore  heels,  dr)'  and  moist  corns, 
bruised  sole,  and  incipient  side  bone. 

3.  They  give  frog  pressure,  develop  the  frog  and  tend  to 
prevent  contraction  of  the  quarters  and  those  lesions  which 
may  follow  contraction,  as  corns,  cracks  of  bars  and  quarters, 
laminitis  of  the  quarters  and  thrush. 

A  ruhher  pad  should  not  he  used: 

1.  In  contraction  of  one  or  both  quarters,  when  the  frog  is 
too  much  shrunken  to  bear  upon  the  pad. 


Fig.  146. 


Fig.  147. 


.     Air-cushion  pad,  seen  from  ground  surface 
and  in  profile.      Suitable  for  light  harness 


A  heavy  bar-pad  suitable  for  heavy  har- 
ness and  draft-horses  on  pavement.  The 
short  shoe  may  carry  a  toe-calk  of  medium 
height. 


2.  In  lameness  from  well  developed  side  bones. 

3.  In  navicular  bursitis  ("navicular  disease"). 

4.  In  thrush,  or  canker  of  frog  or  sole. 

Rubber  pads,  light,  medium  and  heavy,  are  made  in  all 
sizes  and  are  suitable  for  all  classes  of  horses,  from  the  light 
roadster  to  the  heavy  draft  type.  The  short  shoe  with  which 
they  are  used  reaches  the  middle  of  the  quarters.  The  pad 
surface  (upper  surface)  of  the  ends  of  the  branches  should  be 
bevelled  to  conform  to  the  pad,  and  to  hold  it  firmly  against 


HORSESHOEING.  137 

the  frog  and  buttresses.  The  thickness  of  the  shoe  should 
equal  two-thirds  the  thickness  of  the  pad,  so  that  when  fitted 
one-third  of  the  thickness  of  the  pad  shall  project  below  the 
ground-surface  of  the  shoe.  The  'shoe  should  be  provided  with 
a  strong  toe-clip.  With  the  heavy,  thick  pad  of  a  draft-horse  a 
low  toe-calk  may  be  used,  but  heel  calks  should  never  be  put 
on  a  short  shoe.     Pads  are  seldom  necessary  on  the  hind  feet. 


CHAPTER   IV. 
SHOEING  HORSES  THAT  FORGE  AND  INTERFERE. 

A.  Forging. 

Forging  is  that  defect  of  the  horse's  gait  by  reason  of 
which,  at  a  trot,  he  strikes  the  ends  of  the  branches  or  the 
under  surface  of  the  front  shoe  with  the  toe  of  the  hind  shoe 
or  hoof  of  the  same  side.  Forging  in  a  pacer  is  termed  "  cross- 
firing  "  and  consists  in  striking  the  inner  quarter,  or  the  under 
surface  of  the  inner  branch  of  a  front  shoe  with  the  toe  of  the 
diagonal  hind  shoe  or  hoof. 

Forging  is  unpleasant  to  hear  and  dangerous  to  the  horse. 
It  is  liable  to  wound  the  heels 
of  the  forefeet^  damages  the  toes 
or  the  coronet  of  the  hind 
hoofs,  and  often  pulls  off  the 
front  shoes. 


Fig.  148. 


Right  front  shoe  with  concave  ground- 
surface  ("convex  iron")  to  prevent 
"forging." 


Right  hind  shoe  with  lateral  toe-clips  to  pre- 
vent "clicking"  and  the  various  injuries  due 
to  forging. 


Causes. — 1.  Faulty  conformation ;  for  example,  horses  that 
stand  considerably  higher  at  the  croup  than  at  the  withers ; 
horses  with  long  legs  and  short  bodies ;  horses  that  "  stand 
under  "  in  front  and  behind.  2.  IJising  horses  on  heavy  ground, 
unskilful  driving,  allowing  a  long-necked,  heavy-headed  horse 
138 


HORSESHOEING.  139 

to  cany  liis  head  too  low;  riding  without  holding  a  horse  to 
his  work  by  feeling  his  mouth  and  pressing  the  knees  against 
his  sides.  3,  Fatigiie  frequently  leads  to  forging,  even  in  horses 
that  are  well  built  and  properly  shod.  It  may  also  occur  in  the 
act  of  vaulting  over  an  obstacle.  4.  Poor  shoeing,  especially 
too  long  toes  upon  the  front  and  hind  hoofs,  and  too  long  front 
shoes. 

The  aim  of  the  shoer  should  be  to  facilitate  the  quick  and 
easy  "  breaking  over  "  of  the  front  foot,  so  that  it  may  get 
away  before  it  is  overtaken  by  the  hind  foot.  The  toe  of  the 
front  hoof  should  be  fairly  short  and  rolled  ;  the  quarters  spared. 
The  front  shoe  should  be  light,  rolled  at  the  toe  and  no  longer 
and  no  wider  than  the  hoof.  The  ends  of  the  branches  of  a 
flat  shoe,  and  also  the  heel-calks,  in  case  they  are  needed  to 
elevate  a  heel  that  is  too  low,  should  be  bevelled  from  the  hoof 
surface  of  the  shoe  downward  and  forward  under  the  foot. 
Such  short  heel-calks,  bevelled  to  prevent  forging,  are  called 
"  forging  calks."  If  the  horse  continues  to  forge  between  the 
branches  and  "against  the  ground  surface  of  the  shoe,  concaving 
this  surface  will  prove  advantageous  (convex  iron).  The  form 
of  the  front  shoes  of  horses  that  forge  should  represent  merely 
a  prolongation  of  the  hoof. 

The  "  breaking  over  "  of  the  hind  foot  should  be  delayed 
by  sparing  the  toe  and  lowering  the  quarters,  but  not  sufficiently 
to  break  the  foot-axis  too  far  backward.  Tlie  hind  shoe  is  to 
be  squared  at  the  toe  and  the  lower  edge  of  the  shoe  in  the 
region  of  the  toe  well  rounded ;  instead  of  a  toe-clip,  two  side- 
clips  are  to  be  dra^vn  up  and  the  shoe  so  fitted  that  at  least 
three-fourths  of  the  thickness  of  the  wall  of  the  toe,  with  the 
edge  well  rounded,  will  extend  for\vard  beyond  the  shoe.  Should 
the  toe  of  the  hoof  be  short  it  may  be  raised  either  by  a  low  toe- 
calk  set  one-fourth  of  an  inch  back  from  the  edge  of  the  shoe,  or 
by  thinning  the  shoe  from  the  toe  to  the  ends  of  the  branches. 
The  branches  of  a  flat  hind  shoe  should  extend  somewhat 
farther  back  of  the  buttresses  than  under  normal  conditions, 


140 


HORSESHOEING. 


Fig.  150. 


to  trail  upon  the  ground  just  before  the  hoof  alights,  and  acting 
as  a  brake,  to  bring  the  hoof  to  earth  (Fig.  150). 

"  Cross-firing  "  is  most  apt  to  occur  and  is  most  dangerous 
at  extreme  speed.  Then,  when  the  inner  branch  of  the  hind 
shoe  strikes  the  inner  heel,  quarter  or  shoe  of  the  diagonal 
front  foot,  both  feet  are  in  the  air, — the  fore  foot  is  approach- 
ing the  middle  of  its  stride,  while  the  offending  hind  foot  is 
in  the  last  third  of  its  flight.  The  standing  position  that  favors 
cross-firing  is  the  base-wide  (toe-wide)  in  front,  and  the  base- 
narrow  (toe-narrow)  behind.     With  this  direction  of  limbs  the 

flight  of  the  fore  feet  is 
forward  and  inward  during 
the  first  half  of  their  stride, 
while  the  flight  of  the  hind 
feet  is  forward  and  inward 
during  the  second  half  of 
their  stride  (see  Eigs.  72, 
73,  75). 

The   problem   is,   there- 
fore, so  to  pare  and  shoe  a 
„.  J  ^       .^^      „  J*    *    I     *i.  K     ir,„  base-wide  fore  foot  that  it 

Hind  shoe  with  swelled  toe  to  slow  the  breaking 

over.     Often  efficient  when  the  hoof  is  too  short  at  -^^11    break    OVCr    nearer    the 

the  toe:     a,  long  branches  to  trail  and  bring  the  />      i                           j       i 

foot  to  earth;  6,  outer- toe  clip;  c,  toe  squared  and  centre    ol    the    tOC    and    thUS 

set  under  to  prevent  injury  to  front  hoof,  and  to  j.       l               jr               •               J 

deaden  the  sound  of  forging.  CXCCUte    IcSS     of     an     mward 

swing  during  the  first  half 
of  its  stride,  and  to  so  pare  and  'shoe  a  base-narrow  hind 
foot  that  it  will  break  over  nearer  the  centre  of  the  toe  and 
thus  execute  less  of  an  inward  swing  during  the  second  half  of 
its  stride.  Neither  a  toe-wide  nor  a  toe-narrow  foot  can  be 
made  to  break  over  the  exact  centre  of  the  toe,  and  yet  it  is 
possible  by  dressing  the  hoof  and  by  shoeing  to  shift  the  break- 
ing over  point  nearer  to  the  centre  of  the  toe,  and  by  doing  so, 
to  alter  slightly  the  lines  of  flight  of  the  feet. 

Dressing  and  shoeing  the  front  foot :  The  hoof  should  be 
relatively  low  from  the  middle  of  the  toe  around  to  and  in- 


HORSESHOEING. 


141 


eluding  the  outer  buttress.  If  the  inner  half  of  the  wall  is 
deficient  in  length  it  must  be  raised  above  the  outer  half  by 
applying  a  shoe  which  is  thinner  in  its  outer  than  in  its  inner 
branch.     The  inner  toe  should  be  left  long. 

The  shoe    should   be    light,    without    heel-calks,    but   may 
OQxvj  a  low,  cun^ed  grab  ("  grab,"  is  a  low,  straight  or  curved, 


Fig.  151. 


Fig.  152. 


Left  hind  hoof  of  a  toe-narrow  pacer,  shod 
to  prevent  crossfiring:  a,  dotted  line  indi- 
cating outer  border  of  the  hoof;  b,  long  bent 
outer  branch;  c,  short,  thin  inner  branch;  d, 
inner  wall  extending  beyond  the  shoe;  /, 
line  from  which  inner  branch  is  feather- 
edged.  The  shoe  is  of  even  thickness  from 
6  to  /at  inner  toe;  but  from  latter  point  to  c 
diminishea  to  a  feather  edge. 


Front  view  of  hoof  and  shoe  depicted  in 
Fig.  151:  a,  outer  branch  fitted  very  full 
and  bevelled  base  wide;  b,  inner  branch 
diminishing  in  thickness  from  i  nner  toe  c, 
to  its  termination  at  the  inner  quarter. 
Designed  to  favor  "breaking  over"  near 
centre  of  the  toe,  and  to  widen  the  gait. 


toe-  or  heel-calk  on  a  racing  plate)  running  from  the  second 
inner  toe  nail  to  the  centre  of  the  toe.  The  inner  branch  is  to 
he.  fitted  flush  with  the  wall  from  the  centre  of  the  toe  back 
to  the  quarter,  back  of  which  point  it  gradually  extends  beyond 
the  wall,  i.e.,  is  fitted  full ;  and  terminates  well  back  of  the 
buttress.  This  inner  branch  should  be  from  one-fourth  to  three- 
eighths  of  an  inch  longer  than  the  outer  branch.      The  long 


142  HORSESHOEING. 

inner  branch,  full  at  the  quarter,  is  desirable,  but  must  be 
covered  by  a  quarter-boot,  which  a  cross-firer  should  always  wear. 

The  outer  branch  should  be  fitted  snug  and  terminate  at 
the  buttress.  From  the  centre  of  the  toe  to  the  end  of  the 
branch  the  ground  surface  should  be  bevelled  from  the  inner 
edge  of  the  web  to  a  knife-edge  at  the  outer  border. 

Dressing  and  shoeing  the  hind  foot :  The  hoof  should  be 
relatively  low  from  the  centre  of  the  toe  around  to  and  in- 
cluding the  inner  buttress.  If  the  outer  half  of  the  hoof  is 
deficient  in  length,  it  must  be  raised  above  the  inner  half  by 
applying  a  shoe  witli  a  thin  inner  branch.  The  inner  branch 
may  terminate  in  a  knife-edge  midway  between  toe  and  heel 
(Figs.  151  and  152). 

The  inner  branch  is  to  be  fitted  snug  from  the  centre  of 
the  toe  to  its  end,  and  its  ground  surface  should  be  bevelled 
from  the  inner  edge  of  the  web  to  a  knife-edge  at  the  outer 
border. 

The  outer  branch  is  to  be  fitted  very  full  from  the  outside 
toe  to  the  end.  This  branch  should  extend  well  behind  the 
buttress,  and  in  well-marked  base-narrow  hoofs  should  be  turned 
outward  in  order  to  support  the  overhanging  coronet  of  the 
quarter.  The  outer  border  should  be  bevelled  base-wide,  and 
the  nail  holes  punched  coarse,  i.e.,  far  in  from  the  outer  border 
(Figs.  151  and  152).  The  outer  branch  may  carry  a  small 
heel-calk. 

B.  Interfering. 

A  horse  "  interferes "  when  a  hoof  in  motion  strikes  the 
opposite  Supporting  leg.  Interfering  is  apt  to  produce  in- 
juries, either  of  the  coronary  band  of  the  inner  half  of  the 
foot  or  of  the  fetlock-joint,  or  (in  fore-limbs)  of  the  cannon, 
even  as  high  up  as  the  knee.  Lameness  frequently  accompanies 
such  injuries. 

The  causes  of  interfering  lie  either  in  the  shoeing  (of  the 


HORSESHOEING. 


143 


foot  that  strikes,  as  well  as  of  the  foot  which  is  struck),  in 
the  position  of  the  limbs,  or  in  the  use  of  the  aiiimal.  Horses 
that  have  the  correct  standing  position  do  not  interfere  when 
thej  are  properly  shod;  base-wide  horses  interfere  sometimes; 
horses  base-narrow  do^vn  to  the  fetlock  and  toe-wide  below  that 
point  interfere  very  frequently.  Traces  of  unequal  length, 
weariness,  and  shoeing  at  too  long  interv^als  favor  interfering. 

In  attempting  to  lessen  or  remove  interfering,  the  horse 
must  be  most  carefully  examined  with  respect  to  the  position 
of  his  limbs,  his  gait,  and  his 
shoeing,  in  the  manner  de- 
scribed on  pages  90  to  92. 

If  the  cause  is  found  to  be 
the  twisted  position  of  a  shoe, 
too  wide  hoofs,  raised  clinches, 
etc.,  nothing  need  be  done  fur- 
ther than  to  correct  the  shoeing ; 
but  if  a  faulty  position  of  the 
limbs  is  the  cause,  we  must 
ascertain  the  exact  part  of  the 
hoof  that  does  the  striking, 
diminish  the  size  of  the  hoof 
at  that  point,  regulate  the  en- 
tire plantar  surface  of  the  hoof, 
make  the  shoe  straight  along 
the  region  that  strikes, — that  is, 
without  curve, — and  so  fit  it  to  the  foot  that  one-third  of  the 
thickness  of  the  wall  will  extend  beyond  the  shoe.  Where  in- 
terfering is  so  pronounced  as  to  produce  serious  injuries,  we 
use  a  shoe  with  no  nails  in  the  inner  branch  ("  dropped-crease  " 
shoe)    (Figs.  153,  156,  157). 

The  so-called  interfering  shoes  (Figs.  154  and  155)  are 
worthy  of  recommendation  only  for  hoofs  of  the  base-narrow 
position.  The  interfering  branch,  whose  greater  thickness 
raises  the  inner  wall,  which  is  often  too  low,  is  to  be  so  shaped 


A  right  front  shoe  with  nailless  and 
narrow  inner  branch  for  a  base-wide  hoof. 
Suitable  for  horsea  that  strike  anywhere 
from  inner  toe  back  to  the  quarter. 


144 


HORSESHOEING. 


and  directed  that  the  hoof  will  project  somewhat  beyond  it. 
This  interfering  branch  must  be  made  and  shaped  in  accord- 
ance with  each  individual  case.     The  holes  in  the  interfering 


Fig.  154. 


Fig.  155. 


Left  hind  shoe  with  interfering  branch 
(ground  surface) ,  for  base-narrow  stand- 
ing position. 

Fig.  156. 


The  same  (hoof -surf ace). 


Fig.  157. 


Left  hind  interfering  shoe  without  nail- 
holes  in  inner  branch  ("  dropped-crease" 
shoe) :  a,  side-clip. 


Right  hind  shoe  for  toe-cutters.  The 
dotted  lines  indicate  the  distance  that  the 
wall  projects  beyond  the  shoe:  a,  side-clip. 


branch  should  be  punched  somewhat  finer  (nearer  the  edge) 
than  usual.  Interfering  shoes  in  which  the  nail-holes,  with 
the  exception  of  the  inner  toe  nail-hole,  are  placed  in  the  outer 


HORSESHOEING.  145 

branch,  are  called  '"''  dropped^crease  interfering  shoes "  (Eig. 
156).  Such  shoes  are  not  recommended  for  hind  hoofs  that 
are  decidedly  toe-wide  (toe-cutters)  ;  in  such  cases  better  results 
will  be  obtained  by  using  a  shoe,  either  with  or  without  heel- 
calks,  whose  inner  branch  is  straight  and  without  nails  along 
the  striking  region,  and  is  fitted  wide  (full)  at  the  quarter. 
The  inner  branch  should  be  from  one-fourth  to  three-eighths 
of  an  inch  longer  than  the  outer.  The  inner  heel-calk  should 
be  higher  than  the  outer,  and  the  end  of  the  outer  branch 
should  be  as  base-narrow  as  it  can  be  made  (fitted  close)  (Eig. 
157).  In  order  to  prevent  shifting  of  an  interfering  shoe,  a 
side-clip  should  be  drawn  up  on  the  outer  branch  (a). 

There  is  no  manner  of  shoeing  that  will  prevent  interfering 
which  is  caused  by  improper  harnessing,  crooked  hitching,  or 
weariness.  The  simpler  and  the  lighter  the  shoes  the  less  will 
horses  interfere. 


10 


CHAPTER   V. 


WINTER  SHOEING. 


Fig.  158. 


All  shoes  whose  ground-surface  is  provided  with  contriv- 
ances to  prevent  slipping  uj)on  snow  and  ice  are  called  winter 
shoes. 

These  various  contrivances  are  produced  bj  several  proc- 
esses called  "  methods  of  sharpening."  All  methods  may  be 
gathered  into  two  groups, — namely,  practical  sharp-shoeing 
and  impractical.  Only  the  first  will  be  considered. 
The  durability  of  sharpened  shoes  depends 
partly  upon  whether  they  are  made  of  steel  or 
iron,  and  partly  upon  the  nature  of  the  ground 
in  winter.  If  the  ground  is  continuously  covered 
with  a  thick  layer  of  snow,  whatever  method  of 
sharpening  is  followed,  the  shoes  stay  sharp;  if, 
however,  the  winter  is  open,  changeable,  with 
more  bare  ice  than  snow,  no  method  of  sharpening, 
whatever  it  may  be,  will  last  long;  the  shoes  will 
not  stay  sharp. 

For  these  reasons  no  method  of  sharpening 
which  fulfils  all  conditions  satisfactorily  has  yet 
been  discovered. 

The  simplest  and  at  the  same  time  the  least 
durable   method    of   sharpening   is:     1.  That   by 
means  of  ice-nails  or  frost-nails  (Fig.  158).     One  or  two  nails 
are  drawn  from  each  branch  of  the  shoe  and  replaced  with  ice- 
nails. 

2.  Sharp  Toe-  and  Heel-Calks. — The   outer   calk   is   split 

and  a  small  steel  wedge  welded  in.     It  is  then  laid  upon  the 

edge  of  the  anvil,   indented    and  sharpened   from  within   to 

without  in  such  a  manner  that  the  calk  shall  be  thin  from 

146 


An  ice-nail,  frost- 


HORSESHOEING. 


147 


Outer   and    inner    heel-calks  sharp- 
ened. 


the  branch  to  the  ground,  and  the  outer  surface  shall  be  in  the 

same  vertical  plane  as  the  outer  edge.     If  a  calk  is  narrow 

from  its  base  to  its  end,  and  at  the      -p^^ 

same  time  without  flaw,  it  does  not 

need    a    sharp    cutting    edge.       The 

inner   calk   should   never   be    sharp- 
ened   except    the    ground    be    very 

slippery.        The     cutting     edge     of 

this  inner  calk  stands  at  right  angles 

to  the  length  of  the  branch,  and  its 

outer  comer  should  then  be  rounded 

to  prevent  its  injuring  the  opposite  foot    (Figs.    159,    160). 
For  horses  used   for  heavy   draft   purposes   a   toe-calk   is 

welded  to  the  shoe  and  sharj^ened.     For  this  purpose  we  use 

only  steel  (toe-steel), 
which  is  easily 
welded  to  the  shoe 
and  remains  firm. 
Toe-calks  and  steeled 
heel-calks  are  tem- 
pered, in  order,  as 
much  as  possible,  to 
lengthen  their  period 
of  durability.  This 
method  of  sharpen- 
ing is  the  oldest  and 
most  wide  -  spread, 
and  is  employed  on 
the  shoes  of  all  horses 
of  which  we  require 
more  than  light  ser- 
vice, 
even  ruined  by  frequently 


Left  fore  hoof  sharp  shod:  a,  toe-calk  bevelled  from  in 
front;  6,  outer  heel-calk  directed  lengthwise  with  the  branch; 
c,  inner  heel-calk,  half  sharp  and  directed  transversely  to 
direction  of  the  branch. 


Hoofs  are  easily  damaged 


repeated  sharpening  of  the  shoes,  because  every  time  this  is 
done  the  shoes  must  be  removed  and  replaced. 


148  HORSESHOEING. 

3.  Shoeing  with  Screw  Heel-Calks. — Any  ordinary  flat 
shoe  not  too  tliin  and  narrow  at  the  ends  of  the  branches  can 
be  changed  to  a  shoe  with  screw  heel-calks  by  punching  holes 
in  the  ends  of  the  branches  and  cutting  a  thread  in  them. 

The  screw  heel-calk  holes  are  made  either  by  punching  or 
boring.   The  punching  is  done  by  means  of  an  almost  cylindrical 
hammer-punch,    afterwards    finishing    the    holes    by    driving 
through  them  a  round  punch  which  tapers  from  the  middle 
towards  both  ends.      On  the  ground-surface  of 
^^'       ■        the   shoe   the   hole    is    moderately    counter-sunk 
(Fig.    162,    a,),    so  that   after   the   thread   has 
been  cut  and   the  calk   screwed   into   place   the 
shoulder  of  the  latter  will  rest  on  the  counter- 
sinking. 

At  present  nearly  all  screw-calks  are  made 
by  machinery,  either  of  iron  or  toe-steel.  The 
former  is  too  soft  and  therefore  not  sufficiently 
durable;  the  latter,  however,  is  quite  durable 
when  the  calk  is  properly  hardened  (tempered) 
by  heating  to  a  cherry-red,  sticking  the  head  of 
the  calk  as  far  as  the  tap  into  a  bed  of  moist 
sand,  and  allowing  it  to  slowly  cool. 
Ground-surface  of  The    chief   requirements    of    a   good    screw- 

the  end  of  a  branch  n  /.         i  i 

of  shoe,  showing  calk  are,  further,  a  clean,  deep,  but  not  too 
ter-sinidng'^  for^'a  coarsc  thread,  and  but  07i€  size  of  thread  and 
hlirrturai  S:  i'^P  f^"-  «^^  ^^^^^^  «o  that  every  calk  will  fit  in 
every  shoe.  A  calk  whose  tap  measures  one- 
half  inch  (12.7  millimetres)  (Whitworth)  in  diameter  is  sirfS- 
cient  for  the  heaviest  shoes.  The  tap  which  is  used  to  cut  the 
thread  in  the  holes  for  the  screw-calks  must  be  about  y|-g-  of  an 
inch  thicker  than  the  head  of  the  calk.  In  the  German  army 
tbe  calks  have  a  tap  fifteen  thirty-seconds  of  an  inch  in  diameter. 
The  coachman  should  be  given  four  calks  (sharp  and  blunt) 
for  each  shoe,  and  a  small  screw-calk  key  for  placing  and  remov- 
ing them.      Screw  toe-calks    are   also   used,   yet   they   require 


HORSESHOEING. 


149 


special  security  to  prevent  their  becoming  loose.  Experimenta- 
tion with  the  screw  toe-calks,  though  not  yet  entirely  satisfactory, 
cannot  be  said  to  have  ended. 

The  advantages  of  shoes  provided  with  good  screw  heel- 
calks  are  so  manifold  that  they  deserve  marked  preference 
over  shoes  sharpened  by  the  ordinary  methods. 
The  common  objections  urged  against  screw- 
calks, — namely,  that  they  loosen  and  are  lost, 
or  break  off,  are  not  worthy  of  serious  con- 
sideration, since  these  evils  are  merely  the  re- 
sult of  unskilful  workmanship   and  poor  ma- 

FiG.  1G3. 


Fig.  164. 

IS 


Sharp  screw-calks  with  Whitworth  thread 
(half-inch,  natural  size). 


Whitworth  tap  (half-inch, 
half  natural  size). 


terial.  Shoes  with  screw  heel-calks  are  the  best  shoes  for  winter, 
especially  for  horses  that  have  to  worJc  hard  and  continuously. 
Balling  with  snow  is  prevented  by  using  shoes  narrow  in 
the  web  and  concave  upon  the  ground-surface  (convex  iron), 
and  thoroughly  oiling  the  sole^  and  frog.  Sole-pads  of  felt, 
leather,  or  straw  serve  the  same  purpose.  Balling  with  snow 
is  best  prevented  by  a  rubl^er  sol&-and-frog  pad,  or  by  a  "  stop- 
ping "  of  a  patent  hoof  cement  known  in  Germany  as  "huf- 
lederkitt." 


150 


HORSESHOEING. 


4.  Shoeing  with  Peg-Calks.— The  calks  are  merely  stuck 
into  the  calk-holes,  hence  their  name.  Round  and  square  peg- 
calks  are  u'sed,  but  the  former  are  better  than  the  latter. 


The  inventor  of  round  peg-calks  is  Judson,  an  American.  The 
shoes  differ  in  no  respect  from  the  ordinary  flat  shoes.  It  is  necessary 
that  the  tap  of  the  calk  have  a  moderately  conical  form,  and  exactly 
fit  into  the  calk-hole  of  the  shoe.  The  taper  of  the  calk-tap  is  correct 
if  for  every  ten  thirty-seconds  of  an  inch  in  length  it  increases  or 
diminishes  one-thirty-second  of  an  inch  in  diameter  (equal  to  one  inch 
m  every  ten  inches  of  length). 

Although  the  calk-holes  may  be  pmiched  in  a  hot  shoe,  yet  boring 
and  reaming  them  is  much  better,  because  by  this  method  a  more  per- 
fect fit  can  be  secured.  For  this 
purpose  we  require  a  drill  (a 
spiral  drill  is  the  best)  whose 
diameter  is  exactly  the  same  as 
that  of  the  small  end  of  the 
calk-tap  (Figs.  165,  c,  and  166, 
c).  After  the  shoe  has  been 
fitted  to  the  hoof,  the  pro- 
visional holes  are  drilled  and 
aftei-wards  reamed  out  from  the 
ground-surface  of  the  shoe  with 
the  reamer  shown  in  Fig.  167. 
Since  the  tap  of  the  reamer 
corresponds  exactly  in  size  to 
the  tap  of  the  calk,  it  is  evident 
that  the  latter  must  exactly  fit 
and  be  tight.  The  wire  edge 
that  is  raised  around  the  hole  is 
removed  with  a  file,  and  the  edge  then  smoothed  by  introducing  the 
reamer  a  second  time.  The  calks  are  made  of  rolled  round  steel,  which 
has  the  thickness  of  the  tap-end  of  the  calk.  For  this  purpose  we 
require  a  calk-mould  or  matrix,  in  which  one  or  more  holes  have  been 
finished  with  a  reamer.  A  piece  of  rod  steel  is  heated  at  the  end  for 
a  distance  nearly  twice  the  length  of  the  calk,  is  swaged,  thrust  into 
the  matrix,  then  broken  off,  and  backset.  This  will  give  a  blunt  peg- 
calk.  If  a  sharp  calk  is  desired,  the  upper  part  of  the  head  of  the  calk 
is  sharpened  in  the  ordinary  manner,  although  this  is  accomplished 
most  easily  by  using  a  pair  of  tongs  with  short  jaws  that  are  hollowed 
upon  the  inside  for  seizing  the  tap  of  the  calk. 


Sharp  peg- 

Blunt  peg- 

Lower   part   of 

calk  (cog) :  a, 

calk:    o,    the 

the  reamer. 

the     tap;     6, 

tap;     6,     the 

the  head. 

head 

HORSESHOEING.  151 

Before  the  shoes  are  nailed  on,  the  normal  punch  should  be  oiled 
and  driven  into  the  calk-holes,  and  the  calks  passed  into  the  holes  to 
see  that  they  fit  perfectly. 

The  calks  are  driven  into  place  after  the  shoes  are  nailed  to  the 
hoofs.  A  light  blow  is  sufficient  to  fasten  a  calk,  yet  a  necessary 
precaution  is  first  to  remove  every  trace  of  oil  from  the  calks  and  calk- 
holes.  The  first  calk  driven  into  place  must  be  held  with  the  hand 
while  the  second  is  being  diiven,  otherwise  it  will  either  spring  from 
the  calk-hole  or  be  loosened  so  that  it  will  soon  afterwards  be  lost. 

To  remove  such  a  calk  we  strike  its  head  from  different  sides  with 
a  hammer,  stone,  or  other  hard  object  until  it  becomes  loose,  when  a 
rather  hai-d  blow  upon  the  shoe  causes  it  to  spring  out.  Calks  which 
have  worn  do\TO  are  seized  by  a  pair  of  sharp  nippers  and  loosened  by 
blows  upon  the  shoe.  Since  a  calk  which  is  firm  soon  rusts  and  is  then 
veiy  difficult  to  remove,  it  is  recommended  that  all  caJks  be  removed 
eveiy  night. 

The  advantages  of  peg-calks  over  screw-calks  are:  1.  They  do  not 
break  off.  2.  They  are  easier  to  make  and  simpler  to  use.  3.  They 
are  cheaper. 

Disadvantages. — 1.  Peg-calks  are  sometimes  lost,  even  when 
properly  made  and  most  carefully  introduced.  This  evil  happens 
much  less  frequently  when  the  calks  are  put  in  by  the  maker  (lioi-se- 
shoer)  than  when  they  are  stuck  in  by  the  coachman,  attendant,  rider, 
or  other  pei-son.  When  calks  are  lost  on  the  way  from  the  shop,  it  is 
usually  due  to  some  fault  in  the  calk-holes  or  in  the  calks,  although 
when  the  feet  are  balled  with  snow  the  calks  are  easily  lost,  because 
they  do  not  then  touch  the  ground. 

2.  The  removal  of  the  calks  often  involves  many  difficulties,  since 
they  are  apt  to  rust  into  place  if  not  removed  daily,  and  when  worn 
down  so  far  that  they  cannot  be  grasped  with  the  pincers  are  almost 
impossible  to  remove.  By  hammering  upon  the  calks  and  shoe  many 
horses  are  rendered  not  only  restive,  but  sensitive  in  the  feet. 

3.  If  hoi-ses  are  used  without  the  calks,  a  wire-edge  forms  around 
the  hole  on  the  bottom  of  the  shoe,  which  interferes  with  the  placing 
of  the  calk  and  lessens  its  security. 

The  hollow  peg-calk  (Fig.  168),  made  by  Branscheid  & 
Philippi,  of  Remscheid,  has  considerable  merit.  It  holds  ex- 
ceeding:ly  well,  and  is  very  durable.  It  is  furnished  in  three 
sizes, — Nos.  12,  13,  and  14, — of  twenty-seven,  thirty-one,  and 
thirty-four  millimetres  leng;th,  and  twelve,  thirteen,  and  four- 
teen millimetres  diameter  at  the  end  of  the  tap. 


152 


HORSESHOEING. 


A  punch  is  furnished  which,  when  driven  u^  to  its  head  in 
the  holefs  of  the  heated  shoe,  insures  a  proper  width  and  shape 
of  the  hole  and  an  accurately  fitting  calk. 

The  calks  may  be  removed  by  an  extractor  (Fig.  169) 
having  at  one  end  a  thread  which  is  screwed  into  a  correspond- 
ing thread  on  the  inside  of  the  hollow  calk,  when  by  a  fer\v 
hammer  blows  on  the  shoe  the  calk  loosens.  To  prevent  the 
calk  becoming  choked  with  dirt,  a  piece  of  cork  is  thrust  into 
the  hollow.  It  may  be  easily  removed  by  means  of  the  cork- 
screw at  the  other  end  of  the  extractor. 

5,  Shoeing  with  Peg  Toe-Calks, — These  are  an  invention 
of   considerable   worth,    especially    for   heavy    draft    in    hilly 
country.      They  render  better  service  on 
hind  than  on  front  shoes. 

Peg  toe-calks   with    a   single  tap    are 
simpler  and  preferable  to  those  with  two 

Fig.  169. 


Fig.  168. 


Hollow  -  spring     peg -calk, 
No.  12. 


Peg-puller. 


taps.  Every  known  contrivance  to  prevent  the  occasional  loss 
of  the  peg  toe-calk  is  impractical. 

The  shoe  for  a  peg  toe-calk  should  be  of  good  tough  ma- 
terial and  without  a  flaw.  The  toe  of  the  shoe  should  be  about 
one-twelfth  to  one-tenth  of  an  inch  thicker  than  the  branches. 

The  hole  for  the  peg  toe^calk,  whatsoever  its  shape  may  be, 
must  be  smooth  and  uniform,  with  clean,  true  comers.  Semi- 
circular holes  should  present  the  convex  side  towards  the  toe. 

Before  punching,  draw  up  the  toe-clip.  A  punch-plate  with 
a  good-sized  hole,  and  a  tap  which  will  fit  into  the  square  hole 
in  the  anvil  will  facilitate  the  work.     The  punch-plate  when 


HORSESHOEING.  153 

in  position  should  be  flush  with  the  front  edge  of  the  anvil. 
Place  the  toe  of  the  shoe,  hoof  surface  upward,  over  the  hole 
of  the  punch-plate,  and  drive  a  hole  with  a  punch-hammer 
which  is  perceptibly  thinner  than  the  model  punch.  Now  turn 
the  ishoe  over,  punch  back  from  the  ground  surface,  and  then 
file  away  the  wire  edge  which  the  punch  has  raised  on  the 
ground  surface.  Ne'xt,  take  a  hand-punch,  the  end  of  which 
should  just  enter  the  hole,  punch  through  from  the  ground 
surface,  and  correct  any  bulging  by  dressing  lightly  over  the 
horn  of  the  anvil.  Finally,  use  the  model  punch  to  give  the 
hole  the  exact  size  and  smoothness. 

Should  the  hole  in  the  toe  of  the  shoe  enlarge  in  time,  as 
sometimes  occurs,  then  backset  when  necessary  on  removing  the 
shoe.     Backsetting  is  easiest  with  the  half-round  hole,  because 

Fig.  170. 

1=1  O  ^^::\ci:^c^ 


oo 

Cross-section  of  different  forms  of  peg  toe-calk  taps. 

the  curved   side,   being  turned   forward,   runs    approximately 
parallel  to  the  outer  border  of  the  toe  of  the  shoe. 

A  good  serAdceable  peg  toe-calk  must  possess  the  following 
characteristics : 

1.  The  tap  must  be  of  such  shape  as  not  to  turn ;  there- 
fore, not  round. 

2.  The  tap  must  be  cone-shaped,  and  diminish  in  diameter 
about  one-thirty-second  of  an  inch  for  each  one-fourth  of  an 
inch  of  its  length  from  base  to  apex.  If  the  tap  has  less  taper 
it  will  enlarge  the  hole  in  the  shoe  till  the  head  of  the  calk 
comes  into  contact  with  the  shoe,  when  the  calk  will  loosen  and 
drop  out. 

3.  The  tap  must  be  full-formed  and  smooth. 

4.  It  must  fit  air-tight  in  the  toe,  and  a  single  hammer- 
blow  should  be  sufficient  to  fix  it  securely. 


154 


HORSESHOEING. 


5.  The  head  of  the  toe-calk  must  not  rest  on  the  shoe ; 
a  space  of  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch  should  intervene. 

AATiile  a  sheer  of  average  mechanical  ability  can  make  a 
faultless  peg  toe-calk,  it  is  not  profitable  to  do  so  while  good 
machine-made  calks  are  to  be  had  very  cheap. 


Fig.  171. 


Fig.  172. 


Chisel  toe-calk.  (Doring.)  No.  1  from 
the  firm  of  Branacheid  &  Philippi,  of  Rem- 
scheid.' 

Fig.  173. 


Shovel  toe-calk. 


Fig.  174. 


Peg   toe-calk   shoeing   after  Fisher-Renker, 
of  Dresden. 


Peg-calk  (shovel-calk)   after  Kunze-Klotzs- 
che-Konigswald,  of  Dresden. 


The  best  forms  in  use  are  the  quadrangular  heads,  with 
oval,  half-round  (Figs.  171  and  172),  and  with  two  taps  (Figs. 
173  and  174). 

In  several  European  countries  the  peg  toe-calks  with  half- 
round  tap  and  with  two  round  taps  are  in  use.  To  make  good 
peg  toe-calk  shoes  and  fit  the  calks  properly  requires  more 
than  ordinary  knowledge  and  skill.  Poor  work  does  much 
hann.     Therefore,  work  carefully  and  get  well  paid  for  it. 

6.  Removable  Heel-Calks  that  do  not  Require  Sharpening. 
— The  undeniable  fact  that  all  chisel-shaped  or  pyramid-shaped 


HORSESHOEING. 


155 


sharp  calks  become  dull  in  time,  and  must  then  either  be 
sharpened  or  replaced  by  new  calks,  renders  shoeing  not  only 
costly,  but  injurious  to  the  hoofs  and  annoying  to  the  owner. 
This  drawback  is  most  pronounced  in  large  cities,  where  the 
snow  never  lies  long  upon  the  streets,  and  the  hoi-se  just  sharp- 
shod  is  soon  obliged  to  travel  upon  bare  pavements.  Attempts 
have  been  made  to  lessen  this  annoyance  by  the  use  of  calks 
that  do  not  require  sharpening, .  and  yet  which  will  prevent 


Fig.  175. 


Fig.  176. 


Screw-calk  with  H-formed  cro33- 
section. 


Screw-calk    with     4-formed    cross- 
section. 


slipping  even  after  tliey  have  been  used  for  a  long  time  upon 
bare  pavements.  It  cannot  be  denied  that  such  calks  have 
considerable  value,  and,  except  when  the  ground  is  covered 
with  ice,  many  of  these  calks  render  excellent  service.  Just 
as  the  ordinai-y  sharp  calks  are  satisfactory  and  very  durable 
outside  of  the  large  cities,  so  now  for  the  first  time  a  few  of 
tliese  recently  invented  sharp  calks  seem  to  be  worthy  of 
recommendation   for  city  use.      The  following  are  the  best: 

1.  Screw-calks  and  peg-calks  with  H-shaped  cross-section 
(Fig.  175). 

2.  Screw-calks  with  +-shaped  cross-section  (Fig.  176). 

3.  Screw-  and  peg-calks  with  0-shaped  cross-section  (Fig.  176). 

4.  Screw-  and  peg-calks  with  S-shaped  cross-section. 

5.  Angle-calks  (Fig.  177). 

6.  Screw-  and  peg-calks  with  rubber  foot-pad. 

7.  Screw-calks  with  Y  star-shaped  cross-section  (Fig.  178). 


156 


HORSESHOEING. 


8.  Hollow  wedge-calks  (Fig.  179). 

9.  Perforated  screw-calks   (Fig.  180). 

There  is  no  doubt  that  the  grip  that  these  calks  take  upon 
the  ground  and  their  durability  depend  upon  the  diameter  and 
the  arrangement  of  their  surfaces  of  friction.     From  all  ex- 


FiG.  177. 


Fig.  178. 


Fig.  179. 


Fig.  180. 


Hollow  .calk. 


Perforated  calk. 


Fig.  181. 


Universal  screw-calk  key  with  tap. 

Fig.  182. 


Felber's  hand- 


to  secure  the  hoof  from  twisting  while  changing  the  screw-calks. 


periments  made  thus  far  it  is  shown  that  those  calks  which 
have  narrow  and  comparatively  few  surfaces  of  friction  are 
the  least  durable. 

To  introduce  and  remove  the  calks  we  use  a  calk  key  or 
wrench.  For  the  shop,  the  ordinary  fork  key  (Fig.  181),  the 
jaws  of  which  are  tempered,  is  recommended.     It  fits  all  calks. 


CHAPTER   VI. 


HOOF  NURTURE. 

Hoof  nurture  comprises  all  those  measures  whicli  are  em- 
ployed to  keep  hoofs  healthy,  elastic,  and  serviceable. 

A.  Care  of  Unshod  Hoofs. 

The  care  of  the  hoofs  of  colts  is  of  special  importance. 
Abundant  exercise  upon  dry  ground  which  is  not  too  stony  is 
most  beneficial.  Such  exercise  will  cause  the  hoofs  to  wear 
gradually,  and  it  will  only  be  necessary  from  time  to  time  to 
observe  whether  the  wear  „      .„„ 

is  taking  place  uni- 
formly, and  if  not,  to 
correct  the  uneven  wear 
with  the  rasp. 

If    colts    are    reared 
in   the   stable,    the   horn 

^          ^  Twisted  left  front  long  pastern  of  colt,  viewed  from 

does     not     undergo      Suffi-  the  upper  articular  surface.    The  lower  end  has  been 

"^  twisted  toward  the  left:    a,  transverse  axis  of  lower 

Cient   wear,    and    changes  articularsurface;6,  transverse  axis  of  the  upper  artlc- 

.        /»                J?  xi        1        ir            1  ular  surface. 

in  form  of  the  hoof,  and 

even  permanent  distortions  of  the  bones  of  the  foot  gradu- 
ally occur.  The  wall  becomes  too  long  and  bends  or  some- 
times separates  from  the  sole  and  keraphyllous  layer.  Weak 
quarters  bend  (curl)  inward  and  encroach  upon  the  space 
occupied  by  the  frog  (contracted  feet  of  colts).  The  toe  be- 
comes too  long,  and  this  gives  rise  to  too  steep  a  position 
of  the  pastern  and  causes  an  insecure  and  diffident  gait ;  there- 
fore tlie  hoofs  must  be  shortened  from  time  to  time.  The  in- 
curved quai*ters  should  be  removed  with  the  hoof-knife,  and 
the  outer  edge  of  the  plantar  border  of  the  wall  well  rounded 

157 


158 


HORSESHOEING. 


with  the  rasp.  In  the  base-wide  and  base-narrow  standing 
positions  the  outer  and  inner  walls  respectively  become  relatively 
long  and  induce  the  colt  to  assume  a  still  more  abnormal  posi- 
tion. The  young  and  pliant  pasterns  may  thus  become  perma- 
nently twisted  and  distorted  (see  Figs.  183  and  184).  In 
a  hoof  that  is  becoming  awry,  restoring  to  the  wall  its  proper 

level  with  relation  to  the 
poisition  of  the  limb  will 
not  only  be  invaluable  in 
ultimately  producing  a  good 
hoof,  but  will  improve  the 
faulty  position  of  the  limb. 
In  exceptional  cases,  where 
the  plantar  border  of  some 
section  of  the  wall  gives 
evidence  of  too  rapid  wear, 
the  application  of  a  tip  or 
of  a  half-shoe  may  be  of 
benefit.  Furthermore,  Ave 
should  attempt  to  secure 
greater  cleanliness  by  fre- 
quently and  thoroughly  wash- 
ing the  hoofs  and  bedding 
with  plenty  of  good  straw. 

Too  early  '  shoeing  of 
young  horses  is  very  injuri- 
ous; it  hinders  the  development  of  the  hoofs,  and,  furthermore, 
young  horses  when  shod  are  frequently  seriously  overworked 
and  prematurely  ruined.  Moderate  work  in  the  fields  does  not 
injure  young  horses,  but  for  such  service  they  do  not  require 


Left  front  long  pastern  of  a  colt  showing  com- 
pressian  shortening  of  outer  half:  a  ,  transverse 
axis  of  upper  articulation;  b,  transverse  axis  of 
coronary  joint,  not  parallel  to  upper  axis. 


The  unshod  hoofs  of  older  horses  should  be  periodically 
rounded  with  a  rasp  and  the  length  of  the  walls  regulated  when, 
by  reason  of  a  lack  of  exercise,  proper  wear  has  not  taken  place. 


HORSESHOEING.  159 


B.  Care  of  Shod  Hoofs. 


Shod  hoofs  are  exposed  to  many  more  injuries  than  are 
unshod  hoofs,  because  shoeing  iteelf,  although  absolutely  neces- 
sary to  render  horses  continuously  serviceable  upon  hard  streets, 
is  injurious  to  the  hoof,  since  it  to  a  greater  or  less  extent 
prevents  the  physiological  movements  of  the  different  parts  of 
the  foot,  interferes  with  the  circulation  of  the  blood  in  the 
foot,  slows  the  growth  of  the  horn,  and  brings  about  a  gradual 
shrinking  of  the  entire  hoof. 

In  addition,  there  are  the  injurious  consequences  of  stabula- 
tion.  These  are  prevention  of  free  movement^  uncleanliness 
due  to  bad  floors  and  filthy  bedding, — as,  for  example,  peat 
moss  and  soiled  straw, — and  dryness. 

Continuous  standing  always  contributes  to  contraction  of 
the  hoofs,  and  this  evil  is  greatly  favored  by  dryness,  which 
more  particularly  affects  the  front  hoofs.  The  hind  hoofs  re- 
ceive sufficient  moisture  from  the  animal's  manure.  Poor 
floors,  particularly  those  that  are  uneven,  tire  the  limbs. 
Accumulation  of  manure  and  the  careless  use  of  stationary  sole- 
pads  induce  thrush  of  the  frog. 

The  object  of  hoof  nurture  is  to  lessen  or  entirely  remove 
all  these  injurious  consequences  of  shoeing  and  stabulation. 
It  comprises,  therefore,  not  only  the  proper  shortening  of  the 
hoofs  every  five  to  six  weeks,  but  careful  attention  to  cleanliness 
and  moisture.  Both  are  insured  by  dry 'straw  and  daily  picking 
out  and  washing  the  hoofs.  Such  measures  will  prevent  thrush 
in  the  hind  feet.  If  front  hoofs  are  washed  once  a  day.  suffi- 
cient moisture  will  penetrate  the  horn  to  give  it  that  degree 
.of  suppleness  (elasticity)  which  is  possessed  by  an  unshod  hoof, 
and  which  contributes  to  a  proper  expansion  of  the  hoof  when 
the  body-weight  is  placed  upon  it  In  ord^r  to  prevent  a  hoof 
from  again  drying  out,  the  entire  hoof  should  receive  a  thorough 
application  of  an  oil  or  ointment  (hoof-salve).  The  object  of 
greasing  the  horn  is  to  prevent  evaporation  of  the  moisture 


160  HORSESHOEING. 

that  has  penetrated  the  horn.  Specially  compounded  hoof- 
salves  are  not  necessary.  Melted  horse-grease,  pork-fat,  or  any 
other  fat  that  is  not  rancid  is  sufficient.  Cosmoline  is  an 
excellent  hoof-salve. 

Abundant  but  not  excessive  exercise  is  more  necessary  than 
anything  else  to  the  preservation  of  the  health  of  the  hoof.  It 
aids  the  circulation  of  blood  mthin  the  foot,  and,  therefore, 
the  growth  of  the  horn.  Horses  which  perform  hard,  regular 
work  have,  as  a  rule,  better  hoofs  than  those  which  stand  the 
greater  part  of  the  time  in  the  stable.  Poulticing  hoofs  with 
day,  bran,  linseed-meal,  or  white-rock,  or  standing  them  in 
water  is  unnecessary  if  they  have  had  proper  care,  but  will 
sometimes  be  of  benefit  when  the  hoofs  have  been  neglected, 
and  especially  so  for  front  hoofs.  The  latter  are  more  exposed 
to  drying  influences,  and  the  shoes  prevent  the  moistening 
process  by  keeping  the  hoofs  partially  or  completely  removed 
from  contact  with  the  earth.  Oiling  alone  is  not  sufficient  to 
soften  horn,  but  must  always  be  preceded  by  permeation  of  the 
horn  with  water.  Oiling  without  first  cleansing  the  hoof  is 
useless,  because  this  soon  produces  a  greasy  crust  underneath 
which  the  horn  is  crisp  and  brittle. 

The  surest  sign  of  cleanliness  of  a  hoof  is  the  appearance  of 
the  natural  color  of  the  horn,  the  latter  appearing  translucent 
even  after  the  hoof -ointment  has  been  applied ;  therefore,  black- 
ened hoof-ointments  should  not  be  used.  When  hoofs  are  ex- 
posed to  too  much  moisture  (muddy  roads,  melting  snow,  etc.) 
an  addition  of  wax  or  common  yellow  rosin  to  the  hoof -oint- 
ment is  recommended  to  prevent  too  great  softening  of  the  horn. 
No  hoof-ointment  has  any  direct  influence  upon  the  growth  of 
the  horn. 

Inasmuch  as  it  is  a  fact  that  the  very  best  shoeing  injures 
the  hoof,  it  is  advisable  to  allow  horses  to  go  barefoot  whenever 
it  is  possible.  This  applies  especially  to  horses  that  from  any 
cause  are  thrown  out  of  service,  presupposing,  of  course,  that 
the  nature  of  the  hoofs  will  allow  them  to  go  barefoot. 


PART  III. 


CHAPTER   VII. 

GENERAL   REMARKS   CONCERNING   THE   SHOEING   OF   DEFECTIVE 
HOOFS  AND  LAME  HORSES. 

The  boundary  between  health  and  disease  of  the  hoof  is 
difficult  to  determine,  especially  when  we  have  to  deal  with 
minor  defects  of  structure  or  shape  of  the  hoof.  Ordinarily, 
we  first  consider  a  hoof  diseased  when  it  causes  lameness.  How- 
ever, we  know  that  diseases  of  the  hoof  may  exist  without  lame- 
ness. Therefore,  a  hoof  should  be  regarded  as  diseased  or 
defective  when  the  nature  of  the  horn,  the  form  of  the  hoof, 
or  the  parts  enclosed  by  it,  deviate  from  what  we  consider  as 
normal  or  healthy  (see  page  81),  whether  the  service  of  the 
animal  is  influenced  by  it  or  not. 

Front  hoofs  become  diseased  or  defective  more  readily  than 
hind  hoofs,  because  they  bear  greater  weight,  have  more  slant- 
ing walls,  and  are  more  exposed  to  drsdng  influences.  All  nor- 
mally wry  hoofs  and  acute-angled  hoofs  become  more  readily 
diseased  than  regular  and  upright  (stumpy)  hoofs. 

The  indications  of  the  various  diseases  of  the  hoof  are  dis- 
cussed in  the  following  chapters.  We  shall  in  this  chapter 
undertake  only  a  brief  general  discussion  of  inflammation  of 
the  pododerm.  This  inflammation,  known  as  pododermatitis, 
always  manifests  itself  by  lameness  and,  under  closer  examina- 
tion of  the  foot,  by  increased  warmtJi,,  pain,  and  stronger  pul- 
sadion  of  the  digital  and  plantar  arteries.  The  pain  produces 
either  a  timid,  shortened  (sore)  gait,  or  well-marked  lameness, 
especially  upon  hard  ground.  Increased  sensitiveness  of  the 
pododerm  is  detected  by  compression  of  the  hoof  mth  the 
pincers  (hoof-testers),  or  with  greater  certainty  by  lightly 
11  "^  161 


162  HORSESHOEING. 

tapping  the  hooi.  The  increased  warmth  of  a  part  or  of  the 
entire  hoof  is  detected  by  feeling  with  the  hand.  Intense  pain 
and  greatly  increased  warmth,  with  a  moderate,  diffuse  swelling 
of  the  soft  parts  between  the  hoof  and  fetlock- joint,  indicate 
suppuration  within  the  hoof. 

The  examination  of  horses  lame  in  the  feet  must  always  be 
cautious  and  searching,  and  should  begin  with  the  moving  and 
judging  of  the  horse  as  already  described  on  page  90.  The 
faults  detected  in  the  hoof  or  in  the  shoeing,  the  pain  and  in- 
creased warmth  of  the  hoof,  will  not  leave  us  in  doubt  as  to 
whether  the  animal  is  lame  in  the  hoof  or  not.  However, 
should  there  be  a  doubt,  w©  must  carefully  examine,  all  the 
joints  and  tendons  of  the  foot  and,  if  necessary,  of  the  limb 
above,  and  observe  the  animal's  manner  of  travelling  at  a  walk 
and  at  a  trot,  on  soft  and  on  hard  ground,  in  a  straight  line 
and  in  a  circle. 

The  removal  of  the  shoe  should  be  performed  with  greatest 
caution.  Under  certain  conditions  the  second  shoe  should  not 
be  removed  until  the  first  has  been  replaced.  The  same  caution 
must  be  observed  in  paring  the  hoof,  which  is  to  be  regarded  as 
a  part  of  the  examination  of  the  hoof.  The  paring  of  a  hoof 
for  this  purpose  often  differs  somewhat  from  the  preparation 
of  a  sound  hoof  for  the  shoe,  and  while  it  is  necessary  because 
it  frequently  furnishes  the  first  trustworthy  indication  of  the 
trouble,  it  must  be  done  with  circumspection  and  intelligence. 

The  causes  of  diseases  of  the  hoof  are  very  numerous,  for 
many  external  influences  act  injuriously  upon  the  hoof.  In 
addition  to  too  great  dryness,  want  of  care  (neglected  shoeing), 
and  premature,  unreasonable,  cruel  use  of  the  horse,  should  be 
mentioned  particularly  injudicious  dressing  of  the  Jioof  and 
direct  and  indirect  faults  in  tTie  shoeing.  The  pododerm,  shut 
in  between  the  hard  os  pedis  and  the  stiff,  unyielding  horn 
capsule,  is  frequently  exposed  to  bruising  and  other  injuries, 
from  which  arise  most  of  the  defects  of  the  hoof  itself.  All 
these  things  lead,  under  certain  conditions,  to  lameness. 


HORSESHOEING. 


163 


Treatment. — First  of  all,  the  discovered  causes  should  be 
removed,  or,  if  this  is  not  possible,  as  is  frequently  the  case, 
they  should  be  ameliorated.  Very  often  the  lameness  may  be 
removed  by  proper  'shoeing,  a  change  in  the  animal's  work,  and 
better  care  of  the  hoof.  When  there  is  intense  inflammation 
within  the  foot,  the  shoe  should  be  removed  for  a  few  days. 
When  the  inflammation  is  moderate  and  confined  to  a  small 
area,  it  is  usually  sufticient  to  alter  the  shoeing  by  regulating 
unnatural  relations  of  height  in  the  different  parts  of  the  wall, 
and  by  removing  all  superfluous  horn  from  the  wall  and  sole 
(to  a  less  degree  from  the  frog),  partly  for  the  purpose  of 
rendering  the  horn  capsule  more  yielding,  and  partly  to  make 
the  poultices  which  are  used  more  effective.  Tlie  shoe  is  then 
to  be  so  applied  that  the  diseased  region  mil  be  relieved  of  the 
tody-weight,  and  will  remain  free  from  all  pressure  from  the 
shoe.  This  can  be  done  partly  by  making  the  underlying 
branch  of  the  shoe  somewhat  wider  and  longer  than  the  other, 
and  partly  by  cutting  down  the  bearing-edge  of  the  wall  where 
this  is  possible  without  weakening 
it  too  much,  other\\dse  by  concav- 
ing or  beating  Ao\xn  the  upper 
surface  of  the  shoe.  By  reason  of 
the  fact  that  the  posterior  half 
of  the  hoof  is  the  seat  of  most 
diseases  of  the  hoof,  it  is  to  be 
recommended  that  the  nail-holes 
in  shoes  used  in  these  diseases  be 
placed  as  far  as  possible  in  the 
anterior  half  of  the  shoe,  and  in 
jsome  special  cases  distributed 
evenly  around  the  toe.  Among 
shoes  suitable  for  diseased  hoofs 
the  bar-shoe  (Fig.  185)  holds  the  first  place,  because  it 
renders  superfluous  many  other  shoes  specially  designed 
for  various  diseases  of  the  hoof.     It  is  made  like  an  ordinary 


Fig.  185. 


Bar-shoe  for  right  foot. 


164  HORSESHOEING. 

flat  shoe,  except  that  it  requires  a  somewhat  longer  piece  of 
iron;  the  ends  of  the  branches  are  bent  inward  over  a  dull 
corner  of  the  anvil,  bevelled,  laid  one  over  the  other,  and 
welded  together  to  fonn  the  bar.  The  width  and  thickness  of 
the  bar  should  be  the  same  as  of  the  rest  of  the  shoe,  and  its 
frog-surface  should  be  slightly  concave. 

The  har-slioe  is  valuable,  because  it  protects  from  pressure 
diseased  sections  of  the  wall  which  have  been  laid  free,  allows 
part  of  the  body-weight  to  be  borne  by  the  frog,  and  restores 
normal  activity  to  the  disturbed  physiological  movements  of  the 
foot.  By  using  it  we  can  either  gain  a  more  extensive  bearing- 
surface  for  the  hoof,  or  can  make  it  easier  for  the  surface  that 
bears  the  weight  to  do  the  work.  If  on  account  of  weakness 
of  the  bearing-surface  of  the  hoof,  or  from  any  other  cause,  we 
wish  to  distribute  the  body-weight  over  the  entire  plantar  sur- 
face of  the  foot  with  the  exception  of  the  painful  region,  we 
add  a  leather  sole  to  the  bar-shoe. 

In  this  case  it  is  necessary  to  place  holes  in  the  ends  of 
the  branches  of  the  shoe,  so  that  we  may  rivet  the  leather 
firmly  to  the  shoe  with  small  nails.  The  shoe  should  be  made 
somewhat  wider  than  the  hoof,  and  the  clips  somewhat  higher 
than  usual.  After  fitting  the  shoe  the  grooves  for  the  clips  are 
cut  in  the  leather,  the  latter  is  riveted  to  the  shoe,  and  all 
leather  projecting  beyond  the  outer  edge  of  the  shoe  is  trimmed 
away.  The  lacunae  of  the  frog  and  other  concavities  of  the  sole 
are  then  thickly  smeared  with  wood-tar  and  afterwards  filled 
up  with  oakum  to  such  a  degree  that  the  packing  will  bear 
some  of  the  body-weight  when  the  shoe  and  leather  sole  are  in 
position.  This  packing  is  of  great  importance,  because  it  pre- 
vents the  filtering  in  from  behind  of  sand  and  slime,  preserves 
the  toughness  and  pliability  of  the  horn,  breaks  shock,  and 
produces  a  gradual  expansion  of  the  posterior  half  of  the  hoof. 
Before  nailing  the  shoe  to  the  foot  the  leather  sole  should  be 
soaked  in  water. 


HORSESHOEING.  165 

Classification  of  Diseases  of  the  Hoof. 

INFLAMMATIONS    OF    THE    PODODERM. 

1,  Nailing  (pricking  and  close  nailing)  ;  2,  streeMiail ; 
3,  calk-Avoimds;  4,  corns  (bruised  sole);  5,  bruised  heels;  6, 
laminitis  (founder);  7,  keraphyllocele  (tumor  of  homy 
leaves). 

DEFECTS  OF  THE  HORN  CAPSULE  AND  LATERAL  CARTILAGES. 

(a)  Changes  of  form:  1,  flat  hoof  and  full  hoof  (dropped 
sole)  ;  2,  upright  hoof  (stumpy  or  stubbv  hoof)  ;  3,  contracted 
hoof;  4,  \^Tv  hoof;  5,  crooked  hoof;  6,  ossification  of  the  lateral 
cartilage  (side-bone). 

(6)  Disturbances  of  continuity  of  the  horn  capsule:  1, 
cracks;  2,  clefte;  3,  loose  wall;  4,  hollow  waJl;  5,  thrush. 


CHAPTER   VIII. 
INFLAMMATIONS  OF  THE  PODODERM  (PODODERMATITIS). 

I.  Nailing. 

Wounds  of  the  velvety  tissue  of  the  sole  or  of  the  podophyl- 
lous  tissue  of  the  wall,  caused  by  nails  which  have  been  driven 
into  the  hoof  for  the  purpose  of  fastening  the  shoe,  are  usually 
termed  "  nailing." 

We  distinguish  direct  and  indirect  nailing;  the  former  is 
noticed  immediately ,  the  latter  later. 

In  direct  nailing  the  nail  passes  directly  into  the  pododerm 
(velvety  tissue  of  the  sole,  podophyllous  tissue)  ;  the  wound  pro- 
duced may  vary  from  a  simple  puncture  of  the  pododerm  to 
chipping  of  the  border  of  the  os  pedis,  and  is  always  accompa- 
nied by  bleeding,  even  though  it  may  not  always  be  noticed. 

In  indirect  nailing  the  nail  does  not  pass  entirely  through 
the  horn  capsule,  but  very  close  to  the  sensitive  tissues,  and 
crowds  the  soft  horn  inward  against  them.  This  inward  bulging 
presses  upon  the  pododerm  and  causes  inflammation  and  lame- 
ness, which  may  not  manifest  themselves  for  several  days. 

Symptoms. — The  first  symptom  of  direct  nailing  is  instant 
pain  indicated  by  flinching  or  a  jerking  of  the  limb,  showing 
that  the  nail  has  taken  a  wrong  course,  and  then  a  more  or  less 
profuse  hemorrhage.  IJisually  the  blood  flows  from  the  nail- 
hole,  or  the  nail  when  withdrawn  may  merely  show  a  blood- 
stain at  its  point;  however,  internal  bleeding  may  occur  with- 
out any  external  manifestations.  The  symptoms  of  indirect 
nailing  are  entirely  different.  In  this  case  pain  does  not  arise 
immediately ,  but  later,  sometimes  as  soon  as  the  horse  attempts 
to  bear  his  weight  upon  the  shod  foot.  In  the  latter  case,  on 
holding  up  the  opposite  foot  the  animal  sways  backward  and 
throws  his  weight  upon  the  holder,  or  becomes  restless.  As  a 
166 


HORSESHOEING.  167 

rule,  the  consequences  of  indirect  nailing  are  first  manifested 
after  two  or  three  days,  infrequently  from  the  eighth  to  the 
fourteenth  day,  as  inflammation  within  the  hoof  and  lameness, 
at  which  time  a  careful  examination  will  usually  reveal  in- 
creased warmth  of  the  hoof,  pain  upon  pressure  with  the  hoofr 
testers  and  on  tapping  tlie  hoof  lightly,  some  swelling  of  the 
entire  foot,  increased  pulsation  of  the  digital  arteries,  and  un- 
willing-ness  of  the  animal  to  place  all  or  perhaps  any  of  its 
M'eight  upon  the  foot. 

Suspicion  of  nailing  should  be  entertained  if  the  shoeing 
be  recent,  the  hoof  appear  too  small  in  relation  to  the  body- 
weight,  the  walls  have  been  thinned  by  rasping  or  have  been 
broken  away,  or  if  the  nails  have  been  driven  too  high  or  very 
irregularly. 

Causes. — The  most  common  causes  are  mistakes  in  shoeing. 
In  the  majority  of  cases  the  cause  is  a  disregard  of  the  rule  that 
the  nails  should  penetrate  the  white  line  (see  pages  118,  119 
and  130,  heavy  type).  1,  Using  badly-punched  shoes;  2,  excessive 
paring  and  shortening  of  the  hoof;  3,  weakening  of  the  lower 
border  of  the  wall  by  excessive  rasping  away  of  the  outside 
(Fig.  187,  c)  ;  4,  mistakes  in  fitting  the  shoe,  especially  apply- 
ing shoes  that  are  too  narrow,  letting  the  toe-clips  too  deep 
into  the  horn,  by  which  the  nail-holes  near  the  toe,  instead  of 
falling  upon  the  white  line,  are  carried  back  upon  the  edge  of 
the  sole,  or  using  shoes  in  which  the  nail-holes  are  too  wide 
or  improperly  directed ;  5,  using  nails  that  are  split,  incom- 
plete, badly  formed  and  bevelled,  and  too  large;  6,  starting 
nails  too  deep  or  with  the  bevel  on  the  outside,  or  drawing  them 
too  tight.  As  occasional  causes  may  be  mentioned :  7,  old  nail- 
stubs  in  the  horn ;  8,  walls  that  are  very  thin  or  broken  away ; 
9,  a  soft,  crumbling  wall,  which  alters  the  sound  and  feeling 
of  the  nail  as  it  is  driven,  and  makes  it  difficult  to  judge  of  its 
course ;  10,  restlessness  of  the  animal  while  being  shod. 

Examination. — Press  with  the  hoof-testers  upon  the  sole 
and  clinches ;  tap  lightly  upon  the  clinches.    If  these  acts  cause 


168 


HORSESHOEING. 


pain,  tliere  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  nail  is  responsible  for 
the  damage.  Remove  the  shoe  by  drawing  each  nail  separately 
and  carefully.  Examine  the  nails  with  reference  to  their  direc- 
tion and  size,  as  well  as  to  staining  with  blood,  blood-serum, 
or  pus.  Immediately  after  removing  the  shoe,  look  for  the 
point  of  entrance  of  each  nail  into  the  hoof,  and  if  a  nail-hole 
be  found  upon  the  edge  of  the  sole  (Fig.  lS7,h)  instead  of  in 
the  white  line,  it  is  highly  probable  that  the  nail  which  passed 


Fig.  187. 


Fig.  186 


Cross-section  of  a  shod  hoof,  the  hoof-skin  or 
pododerm  being  in  red:  a,  indirect  nailing 
where  backsetting  has  been  overdone  and  has 
bent  the  nail;  6,  nail  properly  placed  and  of 
correct  shape. 


Front  hoof  deficient  in  horn:  a,  right 
position  of  the  nail-holes  in  the  white 
line;  b,  faulty  position  inside  of  the 
white  line;  c,  wall  weakened  by  exces- 
sive rasping. 


in  at  that  place  pressed  upon  the  sensitive  tissues  of  the  foot. 
Every  nail-hole  should  then  be  searched  by  passing  a  clean  new 
nail  into  it  and  pressing  its  point  towards  the  soft  tissues  at 
various  depths;  any  indication  of  pain  caused  by  this  act  is 
pretty  sure  proof  of  nailing.  It  stands  to  reason  that  the 
character  of  the  nail-holes  in  the  shoe  should  be  closely 
examined. 

Treatment. — '\ATien  the  foot  has  sustained  an  ordinary 
simple  prick  with  a  nail,  the  latter  should  be  left  out  and  the 
hole  well  filled  with  wax.     As  a  rule,  no  serious  results  follow. 


HORSESHOEING.  169 

In  severe  direct  nailing  the  entire  shoeing  should  be  most 
carefully  examined,  and  only  after  everything  is  found  to  be 
right,  and  the  shoe  fits  in  such  a  manner  that  the  nails  can 
only  penetrate  the  wall  from  the  white  line,  can  it  be  regarded 
as  correct.  The  offending  nail-hole  is  then  to  be  closed  with 
wax.  According  to  the  intensity  of  the  wound  we  may  expect 
a  more  or  less  pronounced  inflammation  of  the  pododerm,  and 
this  is  to  be  combated  by  resting  the  animal  and  cooling  the 
foot. 

If  the  wound  is  clean  and  recent,  enlarging  the  opening  in 
the  horn  by  cutting  and  boring  can  have  no  reasonable  object; 
tlie  wound  by  such  an  act  will  not  be  made  smaller,  but  larger. 

Frequently,  however,  the  wound  is  not  obser^-ed  or  suspected 
until  the  pain  has  become  very  intense  (indirect  nailing,  nail- 
pressure)  ;  in  such  cases  the  offending  nail  when  withdra"uni  is 
apt  to  be  covered  with  pus  or  a  dark,  thin,  ill-smelling  liquid. 
In  such  a  case  the  liquid,  whatever  its  nature  may  be,  must  be 
given  free  escape.  In  order  to  accomplish  this  it  is  entirely 
sufficient  to  cut  away  a  section  of  the  wall  from  the  nail-hole 
outward,  not  greater  than  the  width  of  the  little  finger,  and 
then  to  assist  in  the  discharge  of  the  pus  by  placing  the  foot  in 
a  warm  bath ;  it  is  entirely  wrong,  in  fact,  reprehensible,  to 
remove  all  horn  of  the  wall  and  sole  which  has  been  loosened 
from  the  soft  parts  by  the  suppurative  proc^^ss.  After  the 
escape  of  the  inflammatory  fluids,  the  wall  and  sole  will  form 
the  best-fitting  and  most  suitable  protective  dressing  for  the 
diseased  region  until  it  has  secreted  new  horn.  If,  after  re- 
moval of  the  nail  and  pus,  the  pain  does  not  diminish,  warm 
disinfecting  baths  of  one  to  two  parts  of  creolin,  or  the  same 
amount  of  lysol,  to  one  hundred  parts  of  water  at  a  temperature 
of  about  90°  F.  will  be  of  especial  benefit ;  they  will  not  only 
soften  the  honi,  but  by  their  moisture  and  warmth  ^^^ll  directly 
diminish  the  pain  and  have  a  healing  influence  upon  the  sup- 
purating surfaces.     The  warm  baths  must  actually  be  loarm  and 


170  HORSESHOEING. 

be  kept  warm.  Antiseptic  solutions  at  room  temperature  are 
much  less  efficient. 

If  the  pain  has  not  been  very  pronounced,  or  if  it  has  been 
greatly  alleviated  by  two  or  three  warm  baths,  then,  as  a  rule, 
it  is  sufficient  to  put  a  few  drops  of  creolin  upon  the  inflamed 
surface,  and  to  close  the  opening  with  oakum  (carbolized  oakum 
or  carbolized  cotton  is  better). 

The  horse  which  has  been  nailed  will  be  again  perfectly 
serviceable  after  a  few  days  if  shod  with  a  shoe  which  does  not 
press  upon  the  inflamed  region.  The  shoe  does  not  press  when 
it  rests  only  upon  the  hearing-edge  of  the  wall,  when  the  white 
line  and  the  edge  of  the  sole  are  entirely  free  of  the  shoe,  and 
no  nails  are  driven  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  wound. 

Even  though,  as  we  have  seen,  nailing  in  the  great  majority  of 
cases  is  not  particularly  serious  to  the  horse  and  owner,  yet  we  should 
never  forget  that  tetanus  (lockjaw),  a  disease  which  is  nearly  always 
fatal  to  horses,  may  follow.  Nailing,  however  insignificant  it  may 
seem,  may  under  conditions  lead  to  the  death  of  the  horse. 

2.  Street-Nail. 

The  condition  caused  by  accidental  injury  of  the  sensitive 
'structures  covered  by  the  homy  sole,  such  as  the  velvety  tissue 
of  the  sole  and  frog,  plantar  cushion,  perforans  tendon,  navicu- 
lar bone,  OS  pedis,  or  the  pedal  articulation,  by  sharp  objects, 
especially  nails,  is  called  "  penetrating  street-nail,"  or  simply 
"  street-nail."  The  resistance  of  the  ground  to  the  weight  of 
the  body  drives  these  penetrating  objects  through  the  sole  or 
frog  into  the  foot. 

Hind  hoofs  are  more  often  affected  than  fore-hoofs.  A 
favorite  point  of  entrance  is  the  lateral  lacuna  of  the  frog. 
Street-nail  is  favored  by  excessive  thinning  of  the  sole  and 
frog. 

Symptoms. — The  symptoms  are,  as  a  rule,  sudden  pain  fol- 
lowed by  lameness.  The  first  a^ssistance  is  usually  sought  in 
the  shoeing-shop.     If  the  cause  of  lameness  be  found  to  be  a 


HORSESHOEING.  171 

penetrating  nail,  piece  of  glass,  or  other  pointed  foreign  body, 
it  must  be  carefully  drawn  out,  in  doing  which  we  should  re- 
move the  entire  object,  not  allowing  pieces  to  break  off  and 
remain  in  the  wound.  Since  it  is  always  important  to  know 
in  what  direction  and  how  deep  the  foreig-n  body  has  penetrated, 
in  order  to  be  able  to  estimate  the  gravity  of  the  wound,  it  is 
advisable  in  all  cases -to  presence  tlie  penetrating  body,  that  it 
may  be  shown  to  the  veterinarian,  in  case  his  services  are 
required. 

Fig.  188. 


Shod  hind  foot,  with  splint  dressing. 

In  slight  injuries  to  the  velvety  tissue  of  the  sole  or  frog, 
accompanied  with  moderate  pain,  it  is  of  no  benefit  to  enlarge 
the  opening,  though  the  horn  of  the  sole  or  frog  should  be 
thinned  for  the  space  of  an  inch  or  more  around  the  wound, 
followed  by  cooling  applications.  Deep,  penetrating  wounds 
accompanied  with  intense  pain  require  the  attention  of  a  veter- 
inarian. 


172 


HORSESHOEING. 


Often  some  form  of  dressing  is  necessar)',  and  this  is  usually 
held  in  place  hj  a  special  shoe.  For  slight  injuries,  such 
splint-dressings  as  are  shown  in  Figs.  188  and  189  are  sufficient. 
Whether  such  a  dressing  be  applied  to  the  front  or  hind  feet, 
the  shoe  should  be  well  concaved  upon  the  hoof-surface.  The 
dressing  is  held  in  place  by  thin  splints  of  tough  wood,  which 
are  firmly  wedged  between  the  shoe  and  hoof. 


Fig.  189. 


A  practical  "splint  shoe"  for  hospital  use 


In  those  rare  cases  in  which  it  is  necessary  to  maintain 
continuous  pressure  upon  the  seat  of  the  wound,  and  to  protect 
the  entire  plantar  surface  of  the  hoof,  a  covered  shoe  (Figs. 
190  and  191)  is  recommended.  This  shoe  is  provided  with  a 
sheet-iron  cover,  having  at  the  toe  a  spur  which  fits  into  a  cor- 
responding hole  in  the  toe  of  the  shoe,  and  fastened  at  the 
heels  by  means  of  screw  heel-calks. 


HORSESHOEING. 


173 


3.  Calk  Wounds  of  the  Coronet. 

All  tread-wounds  of  the  coronet,  caused  by  the  calks  of  the 
opposite  shoe,  by  the  shoes  of  other  horses,  or  by  forging,  are 
knoA\Ti  as  calk  wounds,  or  simply  as  "  calking."  The  injury 
itself  is  either  a  bruise  or  a  bruised  wound,  followed  by  inflam- 
mation of  the  coronary  cushion  and  an  interruption  in  the 
formation  of  horn  at  that  point.    It  occurs  most  often  in  winter 


Fig.  190. 


Fig.  191. 


Shoe  with  cover-plate  for  street-nail  treatment;  suitable  where  pressure-dressing  is  de- 
sired: a,  hole  in  the  bottom  of  the  toe-calk  for  reception  of  spur,  6,  of  cover-plate;  r,  holes 
for  reception  of  screw-calks,  rf,  which  fasten  the  cover-plate  to  the  shoe. 


from  sharp  calks,  especially  on  the  hind  feet.  The  common 
seat  of  the  injury  is  the  coronet  of  the  toe  and  inner  side  of 
the  foot. 

The  inflammation  terminates  either  in  resolution — that  is, 
passes  gradually  away,  leaving  the  tissues  apparently  normal — 
or  in  suppuration.  The  perioplic  horn-band,  which  is  usually 
loosened  from  the  perioplic  band  by  the  injury,  does  not  again 
unite.     For  this  reason,  and  because  of  the  interruption  in  the 


174  HORSESHOEING. 

formation  of  horn  at  the  seat  of  injury,  there  results  a  trans- 
verse depression  or  cleft  in  the  wall. 

The  shoeing  has  to  deal  only  with  the  lameness  that  may 
he  present  as  a  result  of  the  calking.  The  section  of  the  wall 
containing  the  lesion  should  be  shortened,  so  that  it  will  not 
press  upon  the  shoe.  Serious  calk  wounds,  as  a  rule,  require 
treatment  by  a  veterinarian. 

4.  Corns  (Bruised  Sole). 

The  expression  "  corns  "  is  applied  to  nearly  all  bruises  of 
the  pododerm  of  the  posterior  half  of  the  foot,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  frog,  which  are  apparent  to  the  eye  as  yellowish, 
reddish,  or  bluish-red  discolorations  of  the  horn  of  the  sole  and 
white  line. 

The  surface  of  the  pododerm  (fleshy  leaves  and  villi)  is 
chiefly  involved,  and  almost  without  exception  there  is  rupture 
of  small  blood-vessels  and  an  outpouring  of  blood  between  the 
pododenn  and  the  horn.  The  blood  penetrates  the  horn-tubes 
and  causes  the  above-mentioned  staining.  By  subsequent  growth 
of  horn  these  stained  patches  are  carried  downward,  and  are 
finally  uncovered  and  brought  to  sight  in  paring  the  hoof. 

T^e  seat  of  corns  is  either  on  the  fleshy  leaves  of  the 
quarters,  or  on  the  velvety  tissue  of  the  sole  in  the  angle  between 
the  wall  and  the  bar,  or  on  the  fleshy  leaves  of  the  bars.  Thus 
we  distinguish  corns  of  the  wall,  sole,  and  bars. 

Corns  afi^ect  chiefly  the  front  hoofs,  and  more  often  the 
inner  half  than  the  outer.     Unshod  feet  are  seldom  affected. 

According  to  the  intensity  of  the  lesions  we  distinguish : 

1.  Dry  Corns. — The  red^stained  horn  is  dry,  and  there  is 
seldom  lameness. 

2.  Suppurating  Corns. — They  are  the  result  of  intense 
bruising  followed  by  inflammation.  The  pus  is  either  thin  and 
dark  grayish  in  color,  denoting  a  superficial  inflammation  of 
the  pododerm,    or  yellowish   and   thick,    denoting  a   deep   in- 


HORSESHOEING.  175 

flammation  of  the  pododerm.     In  the  latter  case  a  veterinariau 
should  be  called.     Lameness  is  usually  pronounced. 

3.  Chronic  Corns. — In  this  case  there  is  vivid  discoloration 
of  horn  in  all  possible  hues.  The  horn  is  either  soft,  moist, 
and  lardy,  or  crumbling,  cracked,  and  at  times  bloody.  The 
inner  surface  of  the  horn  capsule  has  lost  its  normal  character, 
and  is  covered  with  horny  swellings  or  nodules  (Fig.  192,  a). 
Sometimes  the  wing  of  the  os  pedis  on  tliat  side  has  become 
morbidly  enlarged  and  loosened.  A  short,  cautious  gait  alter- 
nates with  well-marked  lameness;  the  latter  appears  whenever 
the  shoe  presses  too  firmly  on 
the  corn,  or  when  the  hoof  be- 
comes too  dry. 

The  causes,  aside  from  the 
form  and  quality  of  the  hoofs 
and  the  position  of  the  limbs, 
lie  in  injudicious  dressing  of 
the  hoof  and  in  faulty  shoes. 
Too  much  trimming  of  wide  and 
flat   hoofs,    excessive   weakening      ^^^^^  aspect  of  a  quarter  of  a  hoof, 

'  1         T_  J     showing  changes  in  the  horn-leaves  due  to 

of    the    quarters,    sole,    bars,    and    chronic  corns:  a,  homy  tumor  resulting 
j>  J?     n      xi  1         c  1  •!      ii         from  the  disease. 

irog  01  all  other  hoois,  while  the 

toe  is  usually  left  too  long,  are  the  usual  causes.  Shortening  one 
quarter  too  much  in  relation  to  the  other,  so  that  the  foot  is  un- 
balanced and  the  lower  side  overloaded,  is  a  frequent  cause. 
Hollowing  the  sole  and  bars  excessively  and  unnecessary  thinning 
of  the  branches  of  the  sole  in  the  search  for  corns  are  also  causes. 
Among  faulty  shoes  we  may  mention  those  not  level  on  the 
hoof-surface,  trough-shaped,  too  short,  in  the  branches,  shoes 
which  do  not  completely  cover  the  bearing-surface  of  the  hoof, 
or  whose  bearing-surface  at  the  ends  of  the  branches  is  directed 
do-^Tiward  and  inward  so  that  the  quarters  are  squeezed  to- 
gether w^hen  the  weight  is  put  on  the  foot.  Insufficient  con- 
caving of  the  shoe  is  often  an  exciting  cause  of  corns  in  flat  feet 
and  in  those  with  dropped  soles.     A  well-formed  shoe  which 


176  HORSESHOEING. 

does  not  rest  firmly  upon  the  hoof,  or  which  has  been  shifted  as 
a  result  of  careless  nailing,  may  as  readily  cause  bruising  of 
the  quarters  as  neglected  shoeing.  The  latter  causes,  as  a  rule, 
corns  of  the  sole.  It  is  very  rarely  that  corns  are  caused  by 
stones  fastened  between  the  frog  and  branches  of  the  shoe  or 
in  unshod  hoofs  by  pebbles  becoming  wedged  in  the  white  line. 

Dryness  is  particularly  injurious  to  the  hoofs,  and  is  in  the 
highest  degree  favorable  to  the  production  of  corns.  It  renders 
the  hoof  stiff  and  inelastic,  and  first  manifests  itself  by  a 
short,  cautious  (sore)  gait  when  the  horse  is  first  put  to  work. 

Treatment. — First,  removal  of  the  causes,  by  restoring  the 
proper  form  to  the  hoof  through  shortening  a  toe  which  is  too 
long  (esi^ecially  apt  to  be  the  case  in  acute-angled  hoofs),  cutting 
down  quarters  wdiich  are  too  high,  and  carefully  removing  all 
dead  horn  from  the  branches  of  the  sole,  especially  in  acute- 
angled  hoofs. 

Deeply  digging  out  a  small  area  of  blood-stained  horn  is  in- 
jurious. It  is  much  better  to  thin  the  horn  of  the  entire  branch 
of  the  sole  uniformly,  in  doing  w^hich  we  should  avoid  wound- 
ing the  velvety  tissue  of  the  sole  or  drawdng  blood. 

The  proper  shoe  is  the  bar-shoe,  except  when  both  carti- 
lages are  ossified.  The  pressure  should  not  be  taken  from  the 
quarters  unless  they  are  sore. 

When  there  is  a  suppurating  corn,  the  shoe  should  be  left 
off  several  days.  A  chronic  corn  should  be  protected  continu- 
ously from  pressure  by  the  shoe.  This  is  accomplished  by 
using  a  bar-shoe  with  leather  sole.  A  three-quarter  shoe  is  not 
sufficient  to  properly  protect  a,  hoof  affected  with  a  chronic  com, 
if  the  animal  rtiust  perform  exacting  labor  on  hard  roads. 

The  care  of  the  hoof  consists  in  keeping  it  cool,  moderately 
moist,  and  pliant. 

5.  Inflammation  of  the  Heels. 

Inflammation  of  the  bulbs  of  the  plantar  cushion  (heels)  is 
usually  caused  by  such  external  influences  as  bruising.   It  occurs 


HORSESHOEING.  177 

in  both  shod  aiid  unshod  feet.  The  symptoms  are:  increased 
warmth,  pain  and  swelling,  sometimes  infiltration  of  the  tissues 
with  blood,  accompanied  by  a  short,  cautious  gait,  or,  if  only 
one  foot  is  affected,  by  well-marked  lameness. 

The  most  frequent  causes  are:  going  barefoot  upon  hard 
(frozen),  uneven  ground;  shoeing  hoofs  having  low  heels  with 
flat  shoes  that  are  too-  short ;  sometimes  too  much  frog-pressure 
by  the  bar  of  a  bar-shoe;  forging  and  grabbing. 

The  treatment  first  indicated  is  a.  cooling  application  in  the 
form  of  an  ice-poultice,  or  a  soaking  in  cold  water.  Later, 
astringent  (drying)  applications  are  of  benefit,  especially  if 
the  perioplic  horn-ring  has  partially  loosened  from  the  bulbs  of 
the  heels;  for  example,  a  weak  solution  in  water  of  sulphate 
of  copper  (1  to  20),  followed  by  the  application  of  a  shoe 
with  heel-calks,  which  is  quite  long  in  the  branches  and  which 
must  not  press  upon  the  luall  of  the  quarters. 

6.  Laminitis  (Founder). 

By  this  name  we  designate  a  peculiar  inflammation  of  the 
pododenn  at  the  toe.  It  arises  suddenly  in  well-nourished  and 
apparently  healthy  horses,  following  excessive  work  or  long- 
continued  rest  in  the  stable,  and  frequently  leads  to  a  decided 
change  of  form  of  the  hoof. 

The  disease  is  always  accompanied  with  intense  pain.  It 
most  often  affects  both  front  feet,  more  rarely  all  four  feet,  or 
only  one  foot.  In  the  first  case  the  two  front  feet  are  planted 
far  in  advance  of  the  body,  and  the  hind  feet  Avell  forward  under 
the  belly.  When  all  four  feet  are  affected,  travelling  is  ex- 
ceedingly difficult,  often  impossible ;  in  this  case  there  is  nearly 
always  a  high  fever  over  the  entire  body. 

The  seat  of  the  disease  is  in  the  fle^shy  leaves  about  the  toe, 
more  rarely  upon  the  side  walls  and  quarters.  Depending  upon 
the  intensity  of  the  inflammation,  the  fleshy  leaves  are  more  or 
less  loosened  from  the  homy  leaves,  as  a  result  of  which  there 
is  a  change  of  position  of  the  os  pedis,  with  a  simultaneous 
12 


178  HORSESHOEING. 

sinking  of  the  coronet  at  tlie  toe.  This  produces  a  change  of 
form  of  the  hoof.  The  quarters  become  higher.  Rings  form 
upon  the  wall,  and  their  course  is  quite  characteristic  of  the 
disease.  At  the  toe  these  rings  are  quite  close  to  one  anotlier, 
but  as  they  pass  back  toAvards  the  quarters  they  gradually 
separate  from  one  another  and  recede  from  the  coronary  band 
(Figs.  193,  19i,  and  195). 

The  wall  at  the  toe  is  sunken  just  under  the  coronet;  its 
lower  part,  on  the  contrary,  is  thrust  forward.    Later,  the  white 

Fig.  193. 


Vertical  longitudinal  section  of  a  foot  altered  by  chronic  laminitis:  o,  hollow  wall  at  toe 
thrust  forward;  h,  leafy  layer  much  thickened  and  crumbling  ("seedy-toe");  c,  dotted  line 
showing  limit  to  which  the  toe  may  be  rasped  away  in  shoeing;  d,  dropped  sole;  e,  atrophy 
of  lower  sharp  edge  of  os  pedis;  g,  dotted  line  indicating  the  height  of  the  perioplic  band;  h, 
foot  axis. 

line  becomes  pathologically  ividened.  The  horn  of  the  white 
line  is  dry,  crumbling,  and  easily  broken  down,  so  that  a  break 
in  continuity  (crack)  is  apt  to  occur  between  the  wall  and  sole, 
and  lead  to  the  formation  of  a  hollow  wall  ("seedy  toe"). 
Where  the  inflammation  is  moderate  and  is  not  repeated,  healing 
usually  takes  place  and  the  horn  grows  down  regularly  and  in 
normal  direction  from  the  coronet.  However,  a  rather  brittle 
condition  of  the  horn  remains  permanently.  If,  on  the  con- 
trary, the  inflammation  was  very  severe  or  repeated  several 
times,  the  homy  sole  becomes  flat  just  in  front  of  the  point  of 
the  frog  as  a  result  of  the  sinking  of  the  os  pedis,  or  it  may  even 


HORSESHOEING. 


179 


drop  below  the  level  of  the  wall  (full  hoof,  dropped  sole).  In- 
deed, it  even  happens  at  times  that  the  toe  of  the  os  pedis  per- 
forates the  horny  sole  just  in  front  of  the  point  of  the  frog. 


Fig.  194. 


Fig.  195. 


Foundered  foot   (chronic   laminitis),  before 
dressing. 


Foundered  foot,  dressed  and  shod.  The 
dotted  lines  indicate  its  form  before  being 
dressed, — i.e.,  as  shown  in  Fig.  194. 


The  wall  at  the  toe,  which  was  previously  but  little  altered  in 
form,  is  now  tlirust  prominently  forward. 

The  inflammation  of  the  j^ododerm  may  under  certain  con- 
ditions and  by  skilful  veter- 
inary treatment  be  removed, 
so  that  the  characteristic 
changes  of  form  and  quality 
of  the  hoof  will  not  occur. 
But  if  this  is  not  accom- 
plished, as  is  often  the  case, 
the  disease  will  be  obstinate, 
and  permanent  morbid 
changes  of  the  horn  capsule 
take  place. 

A   horse   in   such   a   con- 
dition can  be  used,  but  tlie 

gait  will  be  short  and  stiff.  The  hoofs  are  shuffled  forward  and 
set  heels  first  to  the  ground,  a  manner  of  travelling  that  rapidly 
wears  away  the  branches  of  the  shoe. 

In  dreissing  a  foundered  hoof  the  outer  circumference  of 


A  hoof  altered  by  chronic  laminitis;  shod  with 
an  open  flat  shoe:  a,  wall  at  the  toe  does  not 
bear  on  the  shoe;  6,  clip  at  the  end  of  the  branch 
to  oppose  the  tendency  of  the  shoe  to  slip  for- 
ward when  half  worn  out. 


180 


HORSESHOEING. 


the  sole  is  the  giiide.  The  thick  projecting  wall  at  the  toe  may- 
be removed  with  the  rasp  without  injuring  the  foot..  The  sole 
should  be  spared,  but  the  quarters  should  be  lowered  to  improve 
the  setting  of  the  foot  to  the  gTound. 

The  choice  of  the  shoe  will  depend  upon  the  shape  and 
nature  of  the  sole.  If  this  is  still  concave,  an  ordinary  shoe 
may  be  used.  If,  however,  the  sole  is  flat  or  dropped,  it  must 
be  protected  by  an  open  shoe  with  a  broad  web,  or  with  a 


Fig.  197. 


A  well-covered  (wide-webbed)  bar-shoe, 
with  two  lateral  toe-clips  and  an  end-clip, 
for  a  foundered  foot. 


An  open  shoe  for  a  foundered  foot  with 
dropped  sole. 


bar-shoe  (Eig.  197),  which  is  of  especial  value  when  the  bear- 
ing-edge of  the  wall  is  weak  or  broken  away. 

As  long  as  there  is  pain  on  pressure  about  the  toe  there 
should  be  no  toe-clip,  but  two  side-clips.  The  wall  between 
these  clips  should  be  lowered  a  tenth  to  an  eighth  of  an  inch 
to  prevent  pressure  of  the  shoe  upon  the  sensitive  tissues  of 
the  toe  (Fig.  195).  The  nails  should  be  as  small  as  possible 
and  placed  well  back  towards  the  quarters.  No  nail  should  be 
driven  in.  the  wall  at  the  toe  when  there  is  separation  of  sole 
and  wall  at  the  toe  (hollow  wall,  seedy-toe). 

The    shoes    of   horses    affected    with    founder    often    work 


HORSESHOEING. 


181 


forward  as  a  result  of  the  animals  travelling  upon  tlieir  heels. 
To  prevent  this  evil,  clips  may  be  raised  at  the  ends  of  the 
branches  of  an  open  shoe,  or  one  clip  in  the  middle  of  the  bar, 
in  case  a  bar-shoe  is  used  (Fig.  197). 


Fig.  199. 


7.  Keraphyllocele  (Horn  Tumor). 

A  keraphyllocele  is  a  more  or  less  sharijly  bounded  horn  tumor 
projecting  from  the  inner  surface  of  the  wall. 

Its  occurrence  is  rare.  Its  favorite  seat  is  at  tlie  toe.  It  rarely 
causes  lameness.  It  can  only  be  diagnosed 
with  certainty  when  it  extends  doAvnward 
to  the  lower  border  of  the  wall.  In  this 
case  there  may  be  seen  a  half-moon-shaped 
thickening  of  the  white  line  which  rounds 
inward  upon  the  edge  of  the  sole,  and  is 
of  a  waxen  color.  Frequently  the  horn 
at  this  place  crumbles  away,  lea\'ing  a 
more  or  less  dark-colored  cavity  from 
which  there  sometimes  escapes  a  small 
quantity  of  dark-gi-ayish  pus. 

Causes. — Chronic  inflammation  of  the 
podophyllous  tissue,  resulting  from  com- 
pression or  bruising.  Keraphyllocele  fre- 
quently follows  a  complete  toe-crack  of 
long  duration,  or  a  deep  calk-wound  at  the 
coronet. 

Prognosis. — Unfavorable,  whether  there 
is  lameness  or  not.  If  there  is  no  lame- 
ness it  is  vei-y  apt  to  arise  later,  and  if 
lameness  is  already  present  it  can  only  be   ^hoVng  t  KelpTy'LL^YhoS! 

removed  by   an   operation,   which   should   be    leaf  tumor):  o,   coronary  border; 

performed  by  a  veteHnarian.  A  i-etum  of  J;  ^Lrertutorpr^^enl^n" funnel: 
the  lameness  following  hard  work  at  a  trot  shaped  opening  discharging  pus. 
upon  hard  roads  is  always  to  be  feared. 

Shoeing. — An  ordinary  shoe  well  concaved  underneath  the  inflamed 
region,  which  should  be  relieved  of  all  pressure.* 


*  Should  lameness  persist,  it  will  be  necessary  to  remove  a  strip  of 
the  wall  from  the  plantar  border  to  the  coronet  in  order  to  remove  the 
horn  tumor.  The  fleshy  leaves  which  have  secreted  the  tumor  must  be 
extirpated  and  the  surface  of  the  os  pedis  well  scraped,  or  the  growth 
will  return. 


CHAPTER   IX 


DEFECTS  OF  THE  HOOF. 


A.  Changes  of  Form. 

1.  The  Flat  and  the  Full  Hoof  (Dropped  Sole). 

(a)  Flat  Hoof. — A  flat  hoof  is  one  whose  toe  and  side  walls 
are  inclined  very  obliquely  to  the  ground  surface,  and  whose 
sole  is  on  a  level  with  the  bearing-surface  of  the  wall. 

It  exists  most  often  in  horses  bred  in  low-lying,  marshy 
countries. 

Frequently  the  frog  is  well  developed,  and  projects  con- 
siderably beyond  the  level  of  the  wall.  The  branches  of  the 
sole  sink  perceptibly  under  the  weight  of  the  body,  much  more 
than  in  better-formed  hoofs. 

Preparing  the  Hoof  for  the  Shoe. — The  rule  is  to  spare  the 
plantar  surface  of  the  foot.      After  removing  from  the   sole 

what  little  loose  horn  there 
may  be,  level  the  usually  defi- 
cient bearing-surface  of  the 
wall  with  the  rasp.  The  outer 
border  of  the  wall,  especially 
at  the  toe,  should  be  rounded 
off  rather  more  strongly  than 
usual,  because  the  toe  requires 
and  will  bear  considerable 
shortening.  Outward  bend- 
insufficient  height  of  bearing-edge  of  wall  and  Jj^^g  ^f  ^^^  Jo^gj.  border  of  the 
therefore  a  corresponding  downward  and  in-  " 

ward    inclination   of    the    bearing-surface   of    wall  should  bc  rcmOVed  aS  far 
the  shoe.  .      .  •      i  i 

as  it  IS  practicable  to  do  so. 
The  shoe,  which  should  be  rather  wider  in  the  web  and 
thicker  than  usual,  should  have  its  bearing-surface  shaped  to 
182 


Cross-section  of   a  shod   flat  foot: 
ciently    high    bearing-edge    of    wall,    and    a 
horizontal   bearing-surface    on   the   shoe;    b, 


HORSESHOEING.  183 

correspond  to  the  bearing-surface  of  the  wall;  that  is,  if  the 
bearing-surface  of  the  wall  is  below  the  margin  of  the  sole  (the 
sole  of  the  foot  being  uppermost),  then  the  bearing-surface  of 
the  shoe  should  incline  downward  and  inward  (Fig.  200,  b). 
The  beaj-ing-surface  of  the  branches,  however,  must  always  re- 
main horizontal.  The  shoe  always  requires  deep  concaving, 
especially  along  the  inner  branch  of  the  sole.  If  the  quarters 
are  weak,  the  walls  defective,  or  there  are  corns,  cracks,  loose 
walls,  or  other  diseases  of  the  hoof,  a  bar-shoe  should  be  selected. 

(6)  Full  Hoof  (Dropped  Sole). — A  full  hoof  is  one  whose 
sole  instead  of  being  concave  is  convex, — ^that  is,  bulges  beyond 
the  bearing-surface  of  the  wall.  It  either  arises  gradually  from 
a  flat  hoof  or  is  the  result  of  laminitis  (founder).  In  full  hoofs 
the  lower  surface  of  the  os  pedis  is  of  the  same  shape  as  the 
horny  sole. 

The  preparation  of  a  full  hoof  for  the  shoe  consists  merely 
in  removing  all  loose  horn.  In  case  the  dropping  of  the  sole  is 
very  pronounced,  the  bearing  surface  of  the  Avail  should  be  built 
up  artificially  with  Defay's  hoof  cement.  The  shoe  should  be 
light,  but  broad  in  the  web,  and  furnished  vnth.  a  more  or  less 
deep  concaving,  which  extends  from  the  inner  edge  of  the  web 
to  the  outer  edge  of  the  shoe,  and  corresponds  in  shape  to  the 
bulging  of  the  sole.  By  reason  of  the  deficiency  of  the  wall, 
the  bar-shoe  deserves  the  preference  over  an  open  shoe.  It  is 
frequently  necessary  to  apply  toe-  and  heel-calks  to  remove  the 
hoof  from  contact  with  the  groimd.  The  nails  should  he  thinner 
and  longer  than  usual,  and  a  more  secure  position  of  the  shoe 
may  1^  secured  without  injury  to  the  hoof  by  drawing  up  two 
side-clips. 

Flat  and  full  hoofs  are  incurable.  Shoeing  is  of  benefit 
only  in  rendering  such  horses  serviceable.  Soles  that  are  soft 
and  sensitive  should  be  smeared  vrith  crude  turpentine  or  pine- 
tar,  though  unusual  sen'sitiveness  calls  for  a  leather  sole. 
Horses  with  full  hoofs  should  not  be  driven  faster  than  a  walk 
over  hard  roads.    During  long-continued  spells  of  wet  weather 


184 


HORSESHOEING. 


Fig.  201. 


Upright  I 


stumpy  hoof,  shod  with  a 
"tip." 


2.  It  arises  also  as 


softening  of  these  hoofs  should  be  prevented  by  smearing  the 
soles  with  a  hoof-ointinent  containing  resin. 

2.   The  Upright  or  Stumpy  Hoof. 

The  upright  or  stumpy  hoof  is  that  form  in  which  the 
quarters,  with  relation  to  the  toe,  are 
too  long  (too  high).  The  wall  at  the 
toe  stands  very  steep,  in  some  cases 
perpeaidicular,  and  is  strongly  worn 
away  by  standing  and  travelling. 

Causes. — 1.  The  upright  hoof  is 
peculiar  to  tlie  "  standing  under " 
position  (Fig.  53,  page  QQ)  and  to 
the  so-called  bear-foot  (Fig.  70, 
page  12). 
result  of  all  those  alterations  in  the 

direction  of  the  limbs  wdiich  tend  to  remove  the  quarters  from 

contact  with  the  ground  (con- 

fir     20*? 

traction  of  the  flexor  tendons,  •      "" 

spavin,— Fig.  202). 

3.  It  may  arise  gradually 
from  neglect  of  the  hoofs  of 
horses  running  barefoot. 

4.  It  may  arise  from  ex- 
cessive shortening  of  the  toe 
in  relation  to  the  quarters. 

Shoeing. — The  forms  of 
hoofs  mentioned  in  class  1 
should  be  left  as  they  are. 
The  hoofs  that  fall  under 
class  2  should  be  dressed  and 
shod    until    a   more   natural 

setting  down  of  the  foot  is  secured.  This  is  brought  about  by 
sparing  the  quarters,  and  applying  a  shoe  wath  thickened 
branches  or  with  heel-calks.    ^ATiere  the  service  of  the  animal  is 


HORSESHOEING. 


185 


exacting  and  uj^on  hard  streets,  the  toes,  especially  of  the  hind 
shoes,  may  be  made  more  durable  by  welding  in  steel  plates. 
Besides,  the  shoe  should  be  moderately  hase-wide  around  the 
toe, — that  is,  should  be  bevelled  downward  and  outward,  should 
have  a  strong  toe-clip,  and  should  be  quite  concave  at  the  toe  and 
rolled.  (Figs.  203  and  204).  Should  the  hoof  tip  fonvard 
whenever  the  weight  is  thro%vn  upon  the  limb,  a  shoe  with  a 


Fig.  203. 


Fig.  204. 


Shoe  for  stumpy  hoofs,  ^■iewed  from  ground-surface,  hoof-surface,  and  in  profile. 

spur  projecting  from  the  centre  of  the  toe,  and  turning  back  and 
pressing  upon  the  wall  just  underneath  the  coronary  band,  will 
be  of  ser\'ice  (Fig.  202). 

Only  those  upright  hoofs  which  are  the  result  of  the  causes 
mentioned  in  3  and  4  are  to  be  dressed  as  ordinary  hoofs,  and 
if  the  service  required  is  not  too  exacting  they  should  be  shod 
with  tips  (Fig.  201),  or  with  shoes  with  thinned  branches. 

3.   The  Coxtracted  Hoof. 

A  hoof  ichich  has  deviated  from  its  normal  form  in  such  a 
mminer  that  its  posterior  half,  either  in  part  or  as  a  whole,  is 
too  narroiu,  is  a  contra<:ted  hoof.  The  walls  of  the  quarters 
assume  an  abnormally  oblique  direction  downward  and  inward 
towards  the  median  line  of  the  hoof. 


186 


HORSESHOEING. 


Fig.  205. 


^Yhen  contraction  affects  only  one  quarter,  it  is  called  wii- 
lateral  contraction,  or  abnormal  wryness  (Fig.  211). 

The  buttresses  are  usually  very  much  prolonged  and  press 
upon  the  frog  and  cause  it  to  shrink.  The  bars  no  longer  run  in 
the  natural  straight  direction  from  the  point  of  the  frog  back- 
ward and  outward,  but  describe  a  circle  passing  outward,  back- 
ward, and  inward. 

Contraction  affects  front  feet,  especially  those  of  the  acute- 
angled  form,  more  often  than  hind 
feet.  In  order  to  determine  whether 
or  not  a  hoof  is  too  narrow,  we 
should  always  examine  the  frog 
and  its  lateral  lacunse.  If  the  frog 
is  small  and  narrow,  and  the  lateral 
lacimse  very  narrow  and  deep,  there 
can  be  no  doubt  but  that  the  hoof  is 
too  narrow  (contracted). 

The  causes,  aside  from  too  little 
exercise,  are  chiefly  errors  in  shoe- 
ing, such  as  weakening  the  posterior 
half  of  the  hoof,  leaving  too  long  a 
toe,  either  neglecting  to  remove  the 

A  fore-hoof  with  bilateral   contrac-     SpurS   of  hom  wllich  grOW  frOm  the 
tion  of  the  quarters:  a,  spur  of  horn     -i       ,.  i  j.1,       j?      ™ 

prolonged  from  the  buttress,  which  buttresscs  and  press  upou  the  ±rog, 
L°cunrorthe^fror'  ^'  ""^""^  "^^'^'^'^  ^^  removing  them  incompletely,  and 
using  shoes  whose  branches  are 
either  too  wide  apart  or  are  inclined  do^vnward  and  inward, 
so  that  imder  the  weight  of  the  body  the  heels  are  squeezed 
together  and  contraction  is  favored. 

Prevention  and  Treatment. — First,  it  should  be  borne  in 
mind  that  whatever  exercises  moderate  pressure  upon  the  sole, 
frog,  and  bars  tends  to  expand  the  hoof.  The  action  and  value 
of  the  various  shoes,  frog-,  and  sole-pads,  are  measured  by  this 
rule.  For  this  reason  a  shoe  with  heel-calks  is  never  advisable 
if  an  open  flat  shoe  without  other  means  of  relief  can  be  used. 


HORSESHOEING. 


187 


Fig.  206. 


Furthermore,  since  contraction  is  the  parent  of  nearly  all  dis- 
eases of  the  hoof  (corns,  quarter-cracks,  bar-cracks,  thrush  of 
the  frog) ,  we  should  use  the  greatest  care  to  prevent  it  by  dress- 
ing the  hoof  as  described  on  pages  98  to  103,  using  flat  shoes 
with  a  horizontal  bearing-surface  for  the  quarters,  giving 
abundant  exercise,  preventing  drying  out  of  the  horn,  and 
allowing  the  animal  to  go  barefoot  when- 
ever possible.  Where  the  contraction  is 
hut  slight  the  foregoing  rules  will  be 
found  sufficient. 

In  very  pronounced  contraction, 
where  the  hoof  is  not  acute-angled,  an 
expansive  shoe  with  clips  raised  at  the 
ends  of  the  branches  to  press  against  the 
buttresses  may  prove  very  advantageous ; 
but  under  no  conditions  should  violence 
be  used  in  expanding  the  heels  with  the 
expanding-screw.  This  is  an  act  of  ex- 
treme delicacy,  and  should  be  performed 
only  by  experienced  veterinarians. 

In  very  pronounced  contraction  of 
one  or  both  quarters  of  hoofs  of  every 
degree  of  obliquity  we  may  obtain  a  con- 
tinuous expansive  action  by  the  use  of 
one  of  the  numerous  V-shaped  springs, 
of  which  the  Chadwich  spring  is  the  best 
(Fig.  207  and  208).  After  levelling  th^°u:niro^t^off^a^'S 
the  wall  and  thinning  the  branches  of  the  ^^'t:'^lX:^^i^ 
sole,   the   points   of  the   spring   are   set  s^°^:  ^'  ^'""^'^  ^^^  expanding 

I  ^  "^  ^  the  Defay's  shoe. 

against  the  buttresses,   the  apex  of  the 

spring  moved  to  and  fro  till  the  points  have  bored  well  into 
the  horn,  when  the  apex  is  laid  against  the  sole  at  the  toe,  the 
sole  filled  with  tar  and  oakum  and  covered  by  a  leather  sole, 
and  a  bar-shoe  applied.  If  the  contraction  be  less  pronounced, 
or  if  the  frog  be  much  shrunken  we  may  place  a  Chadwick 


188 


HORSESHOEING. 


spring  beneath  a  rubber  bar-pad  with  a  short  shoe.  The  spring 
may  be  stiffened  from  shoeing  to  shoeing,  first  by  introducing 
the  ferrule  at  the  apex  of  the  spring  and  later  by  shifting  the 
ferrule  toward  the  shoulder  (Figs.  207,  h,  and  208,  h). 
For  contracted  hoofs  of  the  acute-an/^led  form  we  use  the 
bar-shoe,  and  if  there  are  other  diseases  of  the  hoof  present,  or 
if  we  wish  a  more  rapid  and  continuous  expansive  action,  we 
use  also  a  leather  sole  with  foot-packing  with  or  without  a 


Fig.  208. 


Fig.  207. 


The  Chadwick  spring  for  expanding 
contracted  quarters:  a,  apex  of  spring; 
b,  ferrule  to  stiffen  the  spring;  c,  point 
which  is  buried  in  a  buttress  of  the  hoof. 


A  fore-hoof  showing  a  Chad^-ick  spring  in 
proper  position:  o,  Chadwick  spring;  b,  ferrule 
to  stiffen  spring  as  desired;  c,  uncompressed 
spring  before  it  has  been  engaged  against  the 
buttresses;  d,  buttresses  in  which  points  of 
spring  are  buried. 


buttress  spring.  A  foul  frog  should  be  properly  cleansed,  and 
then  disinfected  A^th  pine-tar  thinned  with  alcohol  or  crude 
wood-vinegar   (pyroligneous  acid). 

Further  curative  measures  are :  turning  the  horse  out  with- 
out shoes  (expensive  and  seldom  practicable);  applying  tips; 
using  shoes  the  bearing-surface  of  whose  branches  inclines 
downward  and  outward  (unilateral  contraction  requires  but  one 
branch  to  be  so  constructed)  ;  hoof-pads  of  rubber  (Figs.  145, 


HORSESHOEING. 


189 


Fig.  209. 


146,  and  147),  straw,  rope,  cork,  hoof -cement,  etc.      Special 
forms  of  contraction  are  distinguished,  and  are  as  follows: 

(a)  The  Contraction  of  Wide  Hoofs. — This  contraction  is 
manifest  as  a  concavity  or  gi-oove  in  the  wall  just  below  the 
coronet,  usually  at  the  quarters,  though  sometimes  extending 
entirely  around  the  foot  parallel  to  the  coronary  band  (Fig. 
209).  Pain  is  produced  in  the  contracted  area  by  lightly 
tapping  the  horn,  but  not  by  moderate  pressure  with  the  hoof- 
testers. 

Green  horses  witli  wdde  hoofs,  just  from  the  pasture,  are 
particidarly  liable  to  this  form  of 
contraction.  As  a  rule,  the  lameness 
does  not  disappear  completely  until 
the  wall  has  assumed  its  natural, 
straight  direction  by  growing  down 
properly  from  the  coronary  band. 

In  dressing  the  hoof  and  apply- 
ing the  bar-shoe,  care  must  be  taken 
that  the  lower  border  of  the  wall 
underneath  the  painful  area  is 
lowered  so  much  that  it  will  not 
receive  direct  pressure  from  the  shoe. 

(6)  Contraction  of  the  Sole. — 
This  is  accompanied  by  an  unnatural   .^^^^-^^^  toad'^Tai.o'^ 

direction  of  the  wall.       Instead   of  the    Kroove    in    each    quarter,    and    dis- 

appearing  toward  the  toe. 

wall  being  straight  from  the  coronet 

to  the  shoe,  it  describes  a  curve  whose  convexity  is  outward 
(keg-shaped,  claw-shaped  when  seen  from  the  side)  (Fig.  210). 
The  hoof  seems  constrict>ed  (tied  in)  at  the  coronet  and  at  its 
plantar  border,  the  sole  is  abnormally  concave  (arched),  and 
the  plantar  surface  of  the  hoof  is  considerably  shortened 
from  toe  to  heel.  It  happens  in  both  shod  and  unshod 
horses,  with  otherwise  strong  hoofs,  but  is  quite  rare.  It  is 
occasionally  associated  A\'ith  navicular  bursitis  ("navicular 
disease  "). 


190 


HORSESHOEING. 


Fig.  210. 


Causes. — Principally  dryness,  too  little  exercise,  and  shoes 
without  horizontal  bearing-surface. 

The  treatment  is  correspondingly  simple :  The  shoes  should 
be  flat,  fitted  full  all  around  to  coax  the  wall  out  at  every  point, 
and  the  outer  border  bevelled  base-wide,  so  as  to  furnish  a  base 

of  support  that  is  mder  and 
longer  than  the  hoof.  In 
moderate  contraction  of  the 
sole,  the  bearing-surface  of 
the  shoe  should  be  perfectly 
horizontal,  but  if  the  con- 
traction be  very  pronounced, 
the  entire  bearing-surface 
should  incline  downward 
and  outward  (even  at  the 
toe).  No  toe-  or  side-clip 
should  be  used.  The  shoe 
should  be  reset  ©very  two 
weeks ;  the  sole  kept  so  thin 
by  paring  that  it  will  spring  under  thumb  pressure,  and  kept 
moist  by  washing,  tubbing  or  "  stopping,"  and  the  animal  given 
moderate  exercise  daily. 

In  all  forms  of  contraction  of  the  hoof  abundant  exercise  and 
the  maintenance  of  the  natural  'pliancy  of  the  horn  hy  daily 
moistening  (washing)  with  water  are  absolutely  necessary  for 
successful  treatment. 

4.  The  Wky  Hoof. 

If  one  side  wall  and  quarter  is  steep,  and  the  other  very 
slanting  or  oblique,  we  term  such  a  hoof  a  "  wry  hoof."  Such 
a  hoof  divided  in  the  middle  line  presents  two  very  dissimilar 
halves.  There  are  three  classes  of  wry  hoofs :  1,  normal  wry 
hoofs  (see  Figs.  63-66)  ;  2,  pathological  wry  hoofs,  or  hoofs  con- 
tracted in  one  quarter  (see  contracted  hoofs)  ;  3,  wry  hoofs 
which  are  the  result  of  improper  shortening  of  the  wall  and 
of  neglect  in  horses  running  barefoot. 


A  fore-hoof  with  a  contracted  sole,  properly 
shod:  a,  toe  convex  in  profile;  6,  shoe  fitted  full  all 
around,  and  "bearing-surface"  inclining  outward; 
c,  outer  border  bevelled  base-wide. 


HORSESHOEING. 


191 


Fig.  211. 


Only  the  second  and  third  classes  of  wry  hoofs  require 
especial  attention.  First,  the  more  oblique  wall  must  be  cut 
down,  and  the  steep  wall  spared, — a  procedure  which  differs 
essentially  from  that  employed  in  treating  the  first  class,  but 
is,  nevertheless,  entirely  warranted,  because  these  second  and 
third  kinds  of  wry  hoofs  do  not  correspond  to  the  direction 
of  the  limb. 

In  order  to  take  weight  from  the  steep  wall,  we  use  with 
advantage  a  bar-shoe,  which  should  be  longer  and  ^^dder  than 
the  hoof  on  its  contracted 
side.  In  other  words,  enlarge 
the  base  of  support  by  mak- 
ing the  branch  of  the  shoe 
broader.  If  an  entire  side 
wall  and  quarter  is  con- 
tracted the  branch  of  the  shoe 
beneath  must  be  broad,  the 
border  bevelled  base-wide. 
and  the  branch  punched  so 
deeply  that  the  nail-holes 
will  fall  upon  the  white  line. 

In    old    work-horses    any 
sort   of   shoe   may   be   used, 


A  wry  right  front  foot  of  the  base-wide  class, 
viewed  from  behind.     The  bar  shoe  is  fitted 
full   along   the   contracted   inner   quarter,   and 
though    a   flat   shoe   serves    the    snug  on  the  outside.     The  inner  branch  of  the 

°  _  ^       frog  rests  upon  the  bar  of  the  shoe;  the  outer 

ig    branch  is  free.    The  inner  quarter  from  the  last 
nail  back  to  the  frog  is  free  of  the  shoe. 


purpose  best      If  a  hoof 

wry  from  faulty  paring,  and 

we  cannot  at  once  completely  restore  the  proper  relative  slant 

of  the  two  walls  by  paring  alone,  we  may  use  a  shoe  with 

a   thicker  branch   for  the   half  of  the  hoof  which   is  too  low 

(too  steep). 

In  colts  such  wry  hoofs  can  often  be  cured  only  by  shoeing. 
The  shoe  employed  for  this  purpose  is  "SO  made  that  the  branch 
imdemeath  the  steep  (contracted)  wall  is  quite  thick,  but  gradu- 
ally thins  away  aroimd  the  toe  to  the  end  of  the  other  branch. 
In  strongly  marked  cases  the  thin  branch  may  end  at  tlie  middle 


192  HORSESHOEING. 

of  the  side  wall  (a  three-quarter  shoe).  This  method  of  shoe- 
ing shifts  the  body-weight  upon  the  slanting  wall  and  restores 
the  foot  to  its  proper  shape  in  from  two  to  four  shoeings. 

Causes. — Unequal  distribution  of  the  weight  in  the  inner 
and  outer  halves  of  the  foot,  in  conjunction  with  excessive 
cutting  do^^^l  or  wear  of  the  steeper  wall.  All  faults  in  shoeing 
which  tend  to  produce  contraction  of  the  heels  aid  in  the  forma- 
tion of  a  wry  foot,  especially  when  these  faults  directly  affect 
the  steep  wall.  Neglect  of  the  colt's  hoofs  during  the  first 
years  of  life  frequently  lays  the  basis  for  wry  foot  in  later 
years.    All  wry  feet  are  more  susceptible  to  disease  than  others. 

The  amount  or  degree  of  wryness  varies  considerably.  In  a 
moderately  developed  case  the  steep  wall  (usually  the  inner) 
will  be  drawn  in  at  the  plantar  border  of  the  quarter,  presenting 
a  convex  surface  between  this  border  and  the  coronet,  and  the 
adjacent  branch  of  the  frog  ^vill  be  more  or  less  shrunken.  In 
extreme  cases  the  slanting  wall  (usually  the  outer)  will  also  be 
involved  and  bent  in  the  opposite  direction, — i.e.,  will  be  con- 
cave (dished)  between  coronet  and  lower  border  (crooked  hoof). 

Prognosis. — ^^Tien  the  degree  of  wrvness  corresponds  to  the 
slant  of  the  foot-axis  and  the  old  shoe  shows  nearly  uniform 
wear,  the  defect  is  not  directly  injurious.  In  very  pronounced 
"  wryness,"  however,  with  thin,  bent  walls,  a  number  of  asso- 
ciated lesions,  such  as  corns  and  cracks,  may  be  present  and 
render  the  animal  unfit  for  service  upon  paved  or  macadam 
roads. 

5.   The  Crooked  Hoof. 

A  crooked  hoof  (Fig.  212)  is  one  whose  walls  (viewed  from 
in  front  or  behind)  do  not  pass  in  a  straight,  natural  direction 
from  the  coronet  to  the  ground,  but  are  bent  in  such  a  manner 
that  the  bearing-surface  of  the  wall  in  relation  to  the  foot  axis 
lies  either  too  far  out  or  in. 

It  may  occur  on  any  foot,  but  is  seldom  strongly  marked. 


HORSESHOEING. 


193 


Fig.  212. 


Causes. — The  causes  are  either  long-continued  leaving  of 
one-half  of  the  wall  too  high,  or  the  use  of  shoes  shaped  for 
normal  feet  upon  hoofs  of  the  base-wide  position. 

The  principal  part  of  the  treatment  is  the  proper  dressing 
of  the  hoof.  The  wall  which  is  bent  out  at  the  middle  and 
drawn  in  at  the  plantar  border  is,  as  a  rulcj  too  high  and  too 
near  the  centre  of  tKe  foot  (too  narrow) ;  the  opposite  wall, 
on  the  contrary,  is  too  low 
and  too  far  from  the  centre 
of  the  foot  (too  wide).  This 
explains  the  manner  in  which 
the  hoof  should  be  cut  down 
and  rasped.  The  shoe  must 
be  laid  out  as  far  as  possible 
towards  the  side  which  is 
too  high  and  narrow.  A 
straight  edge  placed  against 
the  high  wall  touches  it  only 
at  its  middle.  The  distance 
of  this  line  from  the  lower 
edge  of  the  wall  shows  us  how 
far  the  surface  of  support — 
namely,  the   shoe — should   be 

set    out    beyond    the    horn.       If  a  crooked  right  fore-hoof  of  the  base-wide 

,                     •    1  J.         J            T_            1          J  position:  a,  convex  wall,  too  high;  b,  concave 

the     straight     edge      be     placed  wall,  too  low;  cd  shows  how  much  of  the  outer 

J.     J.L,              „       'j-       ,„„n        '-I-  wall   must  be  removed  with  the  hoof-knife; 

agamst    the     opposite    wall,     it  y^  superfluous  horn  to  be  removed  gradually 

will   touch   only    at  the  coronet  ^th  the  rasp;  ce  and  ff;.indi^cate  the  position 

•^  of  the  shoe  with  relation  to  the  hoof. 

and    at    the    plantar    border, 

showing  that  the  wall  is  concave.  The  distance  of  the  mid- 
dle of  this  wall  from  the  straight  edge  shows  us  how 
much  too  wide  this  half  of  the  wall  is  at  its  plantar 
border,  and  how  much  of  the  outer  surface  of  the  wall  at  its 
plantar  border  should  be  removed  with  the  rasp.  The  restora- 
tion   of  a  crooked  hoof  to  its  normal  form  requires  several 


13 


194  HORSESHOEING. 

6.  Ossification  of  the  Lateral  Cartilage  (Side-Boxe). 

The  ossification  of  a  lateral  cartilage  (Fig.  213)  consists  in 
a  cliange  of  the  cartilage  into  bone.  Heavy  horses  are  more 
frequently  affected  than  lighter  ones.  It  most  often  involves 
the  outer  cartilages  of  tlie  forefeet,  seldom  both  cartilages. 
Side-bones  always  interfere  with  the  physiological  movements 
of  the  foot,  and  may,  indeed,  entirely  suppress  them. 

The  disease  can  only  be  diagnosed  with  certainty  after  the 
upper  part  of  the  cartilage  has  ossified.     The  coronet  is  then 

rather     prominent      (bulging), 
^'°-  2^^-  and   feels   hard.      The   gait   is 

short  and  cautious,  and  well- 
marked  lameness  often  follows 
severe  work.  As  causes,  may 
be  mentioned  predisposition  in 
heavy  lymphatic  horses,  and 
violent  concussion  or  shock  due 
to  fast  work  upon  hard  roads. 
The  disease  is  incurable. 

A  special  method  of  shoe- 

A  left  fore  os  pedis  viewed  in  profile,  show-  .  .  ■.  i  j.i 

ing  ossification  of  the  external  lateral  carti-  "Ig   IS    Only   nCCCSSary   whcu   the 
lage:  a  dotted  line  shows  normal  line  of  union  ^  cartilage     is     OSsificd     and 

of  cartilage  with  wing  of  os  pedis;  6,  ossined  t?^ 

portion  ("side  bone").     The  unossified  car-  -^l^g    quarter    UpOU    that    sido    is 
tilage  has  been  removed  by  maceration.  i  «  c 

contracted.  After  removing 
the  old  shoe,  whose  outer  branch  is,  as  a  rule,  more  worn  away 
than  the  inner,  the  outer  wall  will  always  be  found  too  high, 
due  to  the  fact  that  there  has  been  little  or  no  expansion 
and  contraction  in  this  quarter  and,  therefore,  little  or  no  wear 
of  the  horn  against  the  shoe.  The  hoof  is  therefore  wry, — on 
the  outside  too  high,  and  on  the  inside  too  low.  This  shows 
us  how  the  foot  should  be  dressed  so  as  to  obtain  a  proper 
base  of  support  and  a  uniform  wear  of  the  shoe.  The  most 
suitable  shoe  is  a  flat  shoe,  whose  out.er  branch  must  be  wider 
than  the  inner.     It  is  so  applied  that  the  inner  branch  fol- 


HORSESHOEING. 


195 


lows  the  edge  of  the  wall  closely,  Avhile  the  outer  branch  must 
be  full  and  at  the  quarter  must  extend  beyond  the  wall  far 
enough  to  touch  a  perpendicular  line  dropped  from  the  coronet 
(Fig.  215).  The  shoe  must,  therefore,  be  punched  deep  (coarse) 
on  the  outer  branch  and  fine  on  the  inner,    A  side-clip  must  be 


Fig.  214. 


Fig.  215. 


Right  fore-hoof  whose  form  has  changed 
as  a  result  of  ossification  of  the  external  lat- 
eral cartilage. 


Shoe  with  broad    outer    branch,   for    the 
hoof    shown    in    the    preceding    cut. 


placed  on  the  outer  branch,  because  in  time  the  outer  half  of  the 
the  hoof  will  again  be  too  high.  Bar-shoes  and  rubber-pads  are 
injurious  when  both  cartilages  are  ossified,  but  may  be  used 
w^hen  there  is  partial  ossification  of  but  one  cartilage,  especially 
if  corns  are  present. 

B.  Disturbances  of  Continuity  of  the  Hoof. 
1.  Ceacks. 

Interruptions  of  continuity  of  the  wall  extending  in  the 
direction  of  the  horn-tubes  are  known  as  cracks  or  seams.  They 
have,  according  to  their  location,  degree,  and  extent,  not  only 
various  names,  but  also  a  varying  significance. 


196 


HORSESHOEING. 


Fig.  216. 


Occurrence.-^On.  the  inner  side  of  front  hoofs,  especially  of 
horses  that  stand  base-mde ;  on  hind  hoofs,  usually  at  the  toe. 
Classification. — According  to  location  we  distinguish  toe- 
cracks,  side-cracks,  quarter-cracks,  and  bar-cracks.  Those 
cracks  which  affect  only  tlie  upper  border  of  the  hoof  are  called 
coronary  cracJcs;  those  which  are  limited  to  the  lower  border  of 
the  hoof  are  sometimes  designated  low  cracTcs  (plantar  cracks)  ; 
while  those  which  are  continuous  from  one  border  to  the  other 
are  called  complete  cra-cJcs.  If  the  crack  passes  through  the 
entire  thickness  of  the  wall  to  the  sensitive  tissues  imdemeath, 
it  is  called  a  deep  or  penetrating 
crach,  in  contradistinction  to  the 
superficial   erack    (Fig.    216). 

Causes. — There  are  many.   Be- 
sides wounds  of  the  coronet,  every- 
thing that  impairs  the  elasticity  of 
the    horn,  weakens    the  hoof,    and 
causes  an  overloading  of  one-half  of 
the  hoof.     Furthenuore,  great  dry- 
ness  and  excessive  work  on   hard 
streets. 
Prognosis. — This  will  depend  upon  the  age,  kind,  and  loca- 
tion of  the  crack.     A  low  crach  is  without  significance  unless 
it  is  the  remnant  of  an  old  coronary  crack  which  has  gro^\Ti 
do\\Ti.     Coronary  cracks,  on  the  contrary,  are  more  serious  be- 
cause  of   the  lameness   which   often    accompanies   them,    and 
especially  on  account  of  the  long  duration  of  the  healing  process. 
The  borders  of  the  crack  never  grow  together,  and  healing 
can  only  take  place  through  healthy,  unbroken  horn  growing 
down  from  the  coronary  band. 

{a)  Treatment  of  Coronary  and  Bar-Cracks. — If  practic- 
able, allow  the  affected  horse  to  go  barefoot;  otherwise,  the 
use  of  the  bar-shoe  for  all  cracks  is  advised,  because  it  will 
continuously  protect  the  diseased  section  of  wall  from  pressure 
by  the  shoe.     If  there  are  present  still  other  diseases  of  the 


Hoof  exhibiting  a  coronary  crack,  a 
plantar  or  low  crack,  and  a  complete 
deep  crack,  the  latter  with  a  nail  ready 
to  be  clinched. 


HORSESHOEING.  197 

hoof  (corns,  contraction,  flat  or  full  hoof),  the  addition  of  a 
leather  sole  with  packing  will  be  most  beneficial,  not  only  in 
favoring  the  healing  of  the  crack,  but  also  in  improving  the 
form  of  the  hoof  and  in  favoring  the  cure  of  the  other  lesions. 
In  all  coronary  cracks  it  is  of  advantage  to  assist  healing  by 
fastening  or  immobilizing  the  borders  of  the  crack  by  one  of  the 
following  methods :  - 

1.  By  rivets  (nails),  which  pass  across  the  crack  through 
holes  previously  drilled  in  the  horn  (Fig.  217). 

2.  By  clamps  or  hooks,  which  by  means  of  special  pincers 
are  forced  into  pockets  previously  burnt  into  the  horn  on 
opposite  sides  of  the  crack  (Fig.  219,  B). 

3.  By  a  thin  iron  plate  placed  across  the  crack  and  secured 
by  small  screws,  such  as  are  used  in  wood  (Figs.  220,  221). 

4.  By  means  of  a  bandage  to  last  one  shoeing. 

Toe-crack  occurs  most  often  in  draught-horses  and  most  fre- 
quently in  the  hind  feet.  In  shod  hoofs  it  starts  at  the  coronary 
border,  and  unless  proper  treatment  is  instituted  soon  reaches 
the  plantar  border.  Long  toes  and  low  quarters  and  excessive 
dryness  of  the  horn  are  predisposing  causes.  The  exciting 
cause  is  usually  for^vard  pressure  of  the  upper  end  of  the 
'short  pastern  against  the  thin  upper  edge  of  the  wall  of  the 
toe.  In  the  last  part  of  the  phase  of  contact  of  hoof  with 
ground  the  pasterns  are  upright,  or  may  even  incline  do^\mward 
and  backward  (foot  axis  broken  strongly  backward),  the  short 
pastern  presses  the  coronary  band  firmly  against  the  upper  thin 
edge  of  the  toe,  when  *if  brittle  through  dryness  it  is  unable  to 
stretch  and  tears  asunder.  Thus,  under  the  effort  of  starting 
a  heavy  load,  when  a  horse  with  all  four  legs  flexed  has  risen 
upon  the  points  of  his  toes,  a  short  quick  slip  followed  by  a 
catch,  vnW  frequently  start  a  crack  at  the  coronet. 

The  hoof  should  be  so  dressed  and  shod  that  the  foot-axis 
shall  be  straight  when  seen  from  the  side.  In  hind  feet  it  is 
admissible  to  break  the  foot  axis  slightly  fonvard.  Therefore, 
shorten  the  toe   and   spare  the  quartetrs.      If  the  latter   are 


198 


HORSESHOEING. 


deficient  in  length,  raise  tliem  by  swelling  the  branches  or  by- 
low  heel-calks. 

The  shoe  may  be  open,  or  a  bar-shoe,  or  a  short  shoe  with 
a  rubber  frog-  and  buttress-pad.   Whatever  expands  the  quarters 

closes  a  toe-crack.     The  Defay's 
^^^^^^^    ^'.""i.^^^:  .,,^.  shoe   (Fig.   206),   or  the  Chad- 

wick  spring  beneath  a  rubber- 
pad,  or  beneath  a  bar-shoe  with 
leather  sole,  if  the  frog  be  much 
shrunken,  will  be  of  service.  The 
shoe  should  fit  air-tight,  except 
for  an  inch  or  so  on  botli  sides 
of  the  crack.  Two  lateral  toe- 
clips  (Fig.  217)  are  drawn  up, 
and  the  wall  between  these  clips 
is  cut  down  from  a  twelfth  to  an 
eighth  of  an  inch. 

After  the  shoe  has  been  nailed 
on  tight  the  toe-crack  should  be 
immobilized.  The  best  method 
is  by  buried  nails.  Slots  are  burned  or  cut  on  opposite  sides 
at  a  distance  of  an  inch  from  the  crack.  With  a  spiral  drill 
(see  Fig.  218)  bore  a  hole  from  a  slot  at  right  angles  to  the 


Toe-crack  immobilized  by  lateral  toe- 
clips:  a,  bearing-surface  left  free  from 
pressure;  b,  heads  of  the  rivets  (nails) 
driven   through   holes   previously   drilled. 


Fig.  218. 


uu/7r7  rm^^z^r^. 


Spiral  drill  for  boring  the  hole  into  which  a  round  wire  nail  is  driven  to  fasten  a  toe-crack, 
(a)  three  sided  point  of  drill  (similar  to  the  point  of  a  stilet  of  a  csecal  trocar). 


crack.  Make  a  similar  hole  on  the  opposite  side.  Make  the 
holes  continuous  by  introducing  a  straight  hot  wire.  The  rivet 
may  be  an  ordinary  round  wire  nail  which  has  been  softened 
by  bringing  it  to  a  yellow  heat  and  allowing  it  to  cool  slowly. 


HORSESHOEING. 


199 


Fig.  219. 


—-& 


It  is  driven  through  and  the  ends  firmly  clinched.  Such  a  nail 
is  easily  placed,  need  not  press  upon  fleshy  leaves,  can  not  be 
stripped  off  or  lost,  and  holds  fast.  The  horse  should  s.tand 
on  the  foot  while  the  rivet  is  being  clinched.  Two  are  sufficient 
for  a  complete  crack  (Fig.  217). 

A  more  rapid,  though  less 
efficient  method  of  immobilizing 
a  toe-  or  a  quarter-crack  is  by 
the  use  of  the  Vachette  hook.  A 
special  apparatus  is  required 
(see  Fig.  219).  The  burning 
iron  (Fig.  219,  4)  is  brought 
to  a  yellow  heat,  its  end  applied 
to  the  wall  so  that  the  two  ears 
are  on  opposite  sides  and  equi- 
distant from  the  crack,  when  it 
is  pressed  firmly  till  the  shoulder 
(Fig.  219,  h)  touches  the  sur- 
face of  the  wall.  A  Vachette 
hook,  the  distance  between  the 
points  of  which  equals  the  dis- 
tance between  the  ears  of  the 
firing  iron,  is  seized  by  the 
special  pincers  (C),  pressed 
into  the  slots  burned  to  receive 
it,  and  is  then  driven  into  the 

horn  bv  COmDrPSsino-  thp  ninPPr'?      ^'  shoulder;  B,  Vachette  hook;   C,  pincers 

noru  uy  comprchbin^  ine  pincers.   ^^^  io^cing.  the  hook  into  the  wall. 
At  the  toe  these  hooks  are  fre- 
quently stripped  off  by  the  heels  of  the  opposite  shoe  (in  hind 
feet).     Free  application  of  hoof  ointment,  and  maceration  of 
the  horn  by  melting  snow  or  mud  tends  to  loosen  them  so  that 
they  often  drop  out. 

An  efficient  method  of  fastening  either  a  toe-  or  a  quarter- 
crack  is  by  using  a  metal  plate  one-sixteenth  {^/i^')  of  an 
inch  thick,  provided  with  four  to  eight  holes  for  the  reception 


A,  Vachette  burning  iron  for  making  the 
two  slots  to  receive  the  ends  of  the  hook; 


200 


HORSESHOEING. 


of  screws  four-  to  five-sixteenths  of  an  inch  long.  The  plate  is 
heated,  bent  to  conform  to  the  cun'^ature  of  the  wall  and  pressed 
against  tlie  horn  till  it  burns  a  bed  for  itself,  when  it  is  screwed 
fast.  It  will  not  loosen  (see  Fig.  220,  b).  In  every  complete 
crack  of  the  wall  the  growing  down  of  coherent  horn  is  favored 
by  thinning  the  horn  for  an  inch  on  both  sides  of  the  crack 
directly  over  the  coronary  band  (see  Fig.  221,  a),  so  that  any 
gliding  movement  between  the  sides  of  the  crack  below  can 


Fig.  221. 


Fig.  220 


Hoof  with  coronary  quarter-crack,  shod  with  Hoof  with  complete  quarter  crack,  shod  with 
a  bar-shoe.  The  part  of  the  quarter  reheved  of  a  bar-shoe :  a,  area  thinned  almost  to  the  podo- 
pressure  a,  is  indicated  by  the  dotted  lines;  b,  derm;  b,  tg  inch  metal  plate  secured  by  screw 
iron  plate  secured  by  small  wood  screws  xVib  is  of  an  inch  long;  c,  quarter  relieved  of  pres- 
of  an  inch  in  length,  j  sure  from  bottom  of  crack  to  a  perpendicular 

dropped  from  top  of  crack. 

not  be  transmitted  through  the  thinned  area  to  the  crack  in  the 
velvety  tissue  of  the  coronary  band.  Cutting  a  "  V  "  at  the 
coronet  acts  similarly,  but  is  less  efficient. 

Quarter-crack  is  usually  associated  mth  contraction  of  the 
heels.  It  occurs  on  the  inner  quarter  of  base-wide  (toe-wide) 
hoofs,  and  rarely  in  the  outer  quarter  of  base-narrow  hoofs. 
For  quarter-cracks  w^e  use  a  bar-shoe  and  determine  the  extent 
of  the  wall  to  be  laid  free  in  the  following  manner:  We 
imagine  the  crack  to  be  prolonged  in  the  direction  of  the  horn 
tubes  to  the  plantar  border,  and  drop  a  perpendicular  line  from 
the  upper  end  of  the  crack  to  the  plantar  border.  That  part 
of  the  plantar  border  lying  between  these  two  points  is  then  to 


HORSESHOEING.  201 

be  lowered  sufficiently  to  prevent  j)ressure  from  the  shoe  until 
the  next  shoeing  (Figs.  220,  a,  and  221,  c). 

This  method  should  he  followed  even  when  the  jDerpendicular 
line  falls  behind  the  buttress. 

The  crack  may  be  immobilized  by  the  metal  plate,  or  by 
narrow  ticking  bandage  or  adhesive  tape  wound  a  half  dozen 
times  around  the  hoof,, in  conjunction  with  a  bar-shoe,  Chadwick 
spring,  leather  sole  and  tar  and  oakum  sole-packing. 

In  dressing  the  hoof,  the  side  containing  the  crack  should 
be  spared,  the  opposite  side  lowered,  the  object  being  to  shift 
the  weight  and  consequent  expansion  into  the  sound  quarter. 
W^ien  the  affected  quarter  is  deficient  in  length  the  branch  of 
the  shoe  beneath  should  be  made  thicker,  even  to  the  extent  of 
causing  it  to  ground  in  advance  of  the  opposite  branch. 

Next  to  shoeing,  rubber  hoof-pads  render  good  service,  be- 
cause through  them  a  part  of  the  body-weight  is  distributed  over 
the  sole  and  frog.  They  assist  in  widening  the  hoof,  and  lessen 
shock  when  the  foot  is  set  to  the  ground.  These  are  all  matters 
which  favor  the  growing  down  of  unbroken  horn. 

When  the  crack  gaps  widely,  and  the  frog  is  small  and  deep 
in  the  foot  a  shoe  unth  bar-clips  (Defay's  shoe),  or  a  Chadwick 
spring,  with  bar-shoe  and  leather  sole  may  be  used.  It  is  not 
impossible,  indeed,  to  obtain  a  cure  by  using  an  ordinary  open 
flat  shoe,  though  much  will  depend  upon  the  other  lesions  that 
may  be  present,  the  nature  of  the  hoof,  and  the  service  required 
of  the  animal. 

If  the  edges  of  the  crack  are  irregular  and  overlapping, 
they  should  be  carefully  thinned  away.  Thinning  the  horn  on 
lx)th  sides  of  the  crack  over  the  coronary  band,  preventing  dry- 
ing out  of  the  horn,  and  frequent  applications  of  carbolized  oil 
to  the  coronet  favor  growth  of  undivided  horn  and  guard  against 
a  renewal  of  the  crack. 

If  in  the  beginning  of  the  disease  there  is  inflammation  and 
lameness,  cooling  poultices  should  be  used  for  several  days. 
When  there  is  no  lameness,  the  horse  may  be  used  for  slow 
draft    purposes.      Coach-    and    saddle-horses    should    he    kept 


202  HORSESHOEING. 

from  fast  work  until  sound  honi  has  grown  down  at  least  one- 
half  of  an  hich  from  the  coronet. 

Bar-crachs  are  usually  the  result  of  changes  of  position  of 
the  quarters,  and  are  just  as  frequently  brought  about  by  con- 
traction as  by  leaving  the  quarters  too  high.  We  see  them 
almost  entirely  upon  the  fore-hoofs.  They  seldom  occur  alone, 
but  are  usually  accompanied  by  corns.  When  the  crack  ex- 
tends to  the  pododerm  there  is  a  superficial  inflammation  of 
■the  pododerm  and  lameness.  When  treatment  is  not  promptly 
begun  the  inflammation  extends  to  the  deeper  layers  of  the 
pododerm,  or,  indeed,  even  to  the  plantar  cushion,  and  gives 
rise  to  swelling  of  the  bulb  of  the  heel  upon  that  side  and  to  a 
well-marked  lameness,  which  requires  treatment  by  a  com- 
petent veterinarian. 

Ordinarily  a  bar-crack  is  only  found  by  a  close  examination 
of  the  hoof  after  the  shoe  has  been  removed.  In  paring  the 
hoof  the  crack  usually  appears  as  a  dark  streak,  sometimes  as  a 
bloody  fissure;  not  infrequently  grayish  hoof -pus  is  discovered 
in  the  depths  of  the  crack. 

The  treatment  must  be  directed  towards  favoring  the  growth 
of  a  continuous  (unbroken)  bar.  This  is  accomplished  by  com- 
pletely removing  the  edges  of  tlie  crack,  paring  the  horn  of  the 
vicinity  very  thin,  and  preventing  the  least  pressure  upon  the 
wall  of  this  quarter  by  the  shoe,  by  lowering  this  quarter  with 
the  rasp  and  applying  a  bar-shoe  with  leather  sole. 

Following  the  removal  of  the  edges  of  the  crack  there  often 
appears,  especially  in  stumpy  hoofs,  a  deep  groove;  if  the  bot- 
tom of  this  groove  is  moist,  we  should  pack  it  with  oakum  wet 
with  a  five  per  cent,  solution  of  creolin  or  carbolic  acid,  and 
cover  the  oakum  with  wax  (grafting  wax).  The  cracks  will 
return  if  the  exciting  causes  cannot  be  completely  removed. 

(&)  Treaiment  of  Low  Cracks  (Plantar  Cracks). — These 
cracks,  occurring  principally  upon  the  hoofs  of  unshod  horses, 
are  the  result  of  excessive  stretching  and  bending  of  the  lower 
border  of  the  wall.  Insufficient  rounding  of  the  wall  with  the 
rasp  is  largely  responsible  for  them.      An  exciting  cause  in 


HORSESHOEING. 


203 


shod  horses  is  the  use  of  too  large  nails  in  shoes  that  are  punched 
too  fine. 

Every  coronary  crack  becomes  in  time  a  low  or  plantar  crack, 
and  this  has  an  important  bearing  upon  the  prognosis,  because  a 
renewal  of  the  coronary  crack  will  be  followed  by  a  low  crack. 

In  order  to  remove  these  cracks  it  is  sufficient  merely  to 
shoe  the  horse.  Upon,  shod  horses  they  may  be  prevented  by 
using  properly  punched  shoes  and  thin  nails.  The  lower  border 
of  the  wall  near  the  crack  should  be  relieved  of  pressure  by 
cutting  out  a  half-moon-shaped  piece  of  horn.  To  prevent  the 
crack  from  extending  farther  upward  we  may  bum  a  trans- 
verse slot  at  the  upper  end  of  the  crack,  in  as  far  as  the  leafy 
layer  of  the  wall,  or  cut  such  a  slot  with  a  small  hoof-knife. 

2.  Clefts. 

An  interruption  of  continuity  of  the  wall,  at  right  angles  to 
the  direction  of  the  horn-tubes,  is  called  a  cleft. 

Clefts  may  occur  at  any  part  of  the  wall ;  vet  they  occur 
most  often  upon  the  inner  toe  and  -pj^   2oo 

inner  side,  as  a  result  of  injury 
from  sharp,  improperly  placed 
heel-calks  (see  page  173).  How- 
ever, suppurating  corns,  or  other 
suppurative  processes  situated  at 
the  coronet  or  which  find  their 
point  of  escape  at  tlie  coronet,  may 
from  time  to  time  lead  to  separa- 
tions of  continuity  and  the  forma- 
tion of  horn-clefts. 

Horn-clefts,  though  the  result 
of  lesions  which  are  often  very 
injurious  and  interefere  with  the 
use  of  the  horse,  are  of  themselves 
not  an  evil  which  can  be  abolished 
or  healed  by  shoeing,  although,  in  many  cases,  proper  shoeing 
would  have  prevented  them.     A  horn-cleft  is  not  a  matter  for 


Hoof  with  clefts  of  the  toe  and  aide  wall. 


204  HORSESHOEING. 

consideration  by  tlie  shoer  until  it  lias  grown  do^vn  so  far  that 
it  comes  within  the  region  of  the  nails. 

In  order  not  to  disfigure  the  hoof  unnecessarily,  the  horn 
below  the  cleft  should  be  kept  in  place  as  long  as  possible  by 
shortening  the  wall  at  that  point,  to  remove  shoe-pressure,  and 
by  driving  no  nails  into  it.  If,  however,  the  horn  is  loose  and 
about  to  come  away,  it  should  be  removed  and  the  defect  filled 
with  Defay's  patent  horn-cement. 

3.  Loose  Wall. 

Separation  of  the  wall  from  the  'sole  in  the  white  line  is 
called  loose  wall  (Fig.  223,  a). 

Occurrence. — Frequent  on  the  fore-hoofs  of  shod  and  un- 
shod horses,  and  oftener  upon  the  inner  than  upon  the  outer 
side.  More  rare  on  hind  hoofs.  Common-bred  horses  vnth.  \^dde 
and  flat  feet  are  predisposed  to  this  trouble. 

We  distinguish  superficial  and  deep  loose  wall;  only  the 
latter  requires  the  sheer's  attention,  because  it  leads  to  lameness. 

Causes. — Walls  which  are  very  oblique  (slanting)  ;  outward 
bendings  of  the  plantar  border  of  the  wall ;  burning  the  horn 
with  hot  shoes ;  dryness ;  neglected  shoeing ;  excessive  softening 
of  the  horn  with  poultices,  particularly  of  cow-dung;  careless- 
ness in  preparing  the  bearing-surfaces  of  hoof  and  shoe  in  shoe- 
ing ;  uneven  fitting  of  the  shoe. 

Treatment. — It  aims  to  remove  the  lameness  and  to  favor 
growth  of  coherent  horn.  In  the  first  place  the  removal  of  the 
exciting  causes,  followed  by  proper  shortening  of  the  wall.  We 
should  apply  a  shoe  whose  bearing-surface  inclines  slightly  down- 
ivard  and  imcard,  is  perfectly  smooth,  and  wide  enough  to  cover 
the  wall,  white  line,  and  outer  border  of  the  sole;  the  iron  should 
be  only  moderately  warm.  Where  there  is  lameness  we  use  a 
leather  sole  with  packing,  or  a  bar-shoe.  The  loose  wall  should 
be  freed  from  shoe-pressure  only  when  it  does  not  extend  far 
along  the  white  line.  When  the  separation  is  extensive  the  loose 
wall  should  not  be  lowered.  The  crack  should  be  filled  with 
wood-tar,  ciiide  turpentine,  or  soft  gi-afting-wax. 


HORSESHOEING.  205 

If  a  loose  wall  occur  upon  the  foot  of  a  horse  while  running 
barefoot,  all  separated  horn  should  be  removed ;  if,  on  account 
of  the  nature  of  the  ground,  this  seems  to  be  impracticable,  the 
hoof  must  be  shod. 

Care  of  the  Hoof. — Shoe  at  least  every  four  to  five  weeks. 
Preserve  the  pliancy  and  toughness  of  the  horn  by  judicious 
moistening. 

4.  Hollow  Wall. 

A  hollow  wall  is  one  in  which  a  separation  has  occurred  be- 
tween the  middle  layer  of  the  wall  and  the  heraphyllous  layer. 
This  crack  or  separation 
always  extends  in  the  di- 
rection of  the  layers  of 
the  waU   (Fig.   223,   b). 

Occurrence. —  Quite 
rare. 

We  should  suspect  a 

hollow    wall    when    a    part    ^^  imaginary  transverse  vertical  section  of  a  hoof 
•'■  showing   (a)   loose   wall   and    (6)    hollow   wall. 

of  the   wall   rounds   out 

prominently  beyond  the  rest,  and  gives  forth  a  hollow  (reson- 
ant) sound  when  struck.  The  white  line  presents  a  crack,  yet 
we  should  hesitate  to  form  a  conclusion  as  to  the  extent  of 
the  separation  from  the  extent  of  the  crack  along  the  white 
line,  since  the  latter  may  be  considerably  smaller.  The  separa- 
tion extends  higher  up  the  Avail  than  in  the  case  of  loose  wall, 
frequently  to  the  coronet.  The  cavity  is  usually  filled  with 
crumbling,  disintegrated  horn. 

Hollow  wall  is  not  often  accompanied  by  pain.  Lameness 
may  arise,  however,  if  the  hollow  section  of  wall  assists  in 
bearing  the  body-weight,  and  if  the  animal  does  fast  work 
upon  paved  streets. 

Causes. — Mechanical  influences  resulting  in  chronic  inflam- 
mation of  fleshy  leaves. 

Treatment. — A  cure  is  possible,  but  requires  considerable 
time.     In  shoeing,  which  should  always  aim  to  relieve  pressure 


206  HORSESHOEING. 

from  the  hollow  section  of  wall,  we  cleanse  the  cavity  and 
fill  it  with  oakum  and  tar,  cinide  turpentine,  or  w^ax.  Where 
the  separation  is  very  extensive  we  use  a  har-shoe. 

The  time  required  for  complete  cure  of  hollow  and  loose 
walls  will  depend  upon  the  height  of  the  separation  (see  growth 
of  the  hoof,  page  82). 

5.   Thkush  of  the  Frog. 

Wlien  the  horny  frog  is  ragged  and  fissured,  and  an  ill- 
smelling,  dark-colored  liquid  collects  in  the  lacunfe  of  the  frog, 
it  is  affected  with  thrush.  When  thrush  exists  uninterruptedly 
for  several  months  the  perioplic  band  is  irritated  and  forms 

rings  of  periople  which 
^^"    ^'  assume    an    in-egular 

course  and  cross  the 
rings  of  the  middle 
layer  of  the  wall  (Fig. 
224). 

The  causes:  un- 
cleanliness,  too  little 
exercise  in  fresh  air, 
excessive  paring  of  the 
frog,  and  the  use  of 
shoes  with  calks  by 
which      the      frog     is 

Hoof  with  irregular  superficial  rings  resulting  from  thrush     pemianentlv       rCmOVed 
of  the  frog.  <-  .  i  "  i 

from  the  ground. 

The  consequences  are,  besides  contraction  of  the  hoof,  sore- 
ness in  travelling,  a  shortening  of  the  step,  and,  occasionally, 
well-marked  lameness. 

Treatment. — Removal  of  all  greasy  horn  from  the  frog,  and 
of  the  prominent  overgrown  angles  of  the  buttresses  (see  page 
100),  thorough  washing  of  the  frog  once  or  twice  daily  with  a 
5  per  cent,  creolin  or  carbolic  solution,  abundant  exercise,  and 
shoes  without  calks, 


CHAPTER   X. 
SHOEING  MULES,  ASSES,  AND  OXEN. 


Fig.  225. 


1.  The  shoeing  of -mules  and  asses  is,  as  in  the  case  of 
horses,  a  necessity  if  these  animals  are  to  be  used  for  draft 
or  saddle  purposes  on  hard  streets.  The  structure  and  char- 
acteristics of  the  hoofs  of  these  animals  are  quite  similar  to 
those  of  the  horse,  differing  chiefly  in  the  form  and  thickness 
of  the  wall.  The  mule  hoof  is  long  and  narrow  and  round  at 
the  toe,  the  sole  is  well  arched,  and  the 
side  walls  are  rather  steep  (Fig.  225). 
In  the  ass  the  narrowness  of  hoof  is  still 
more  pronounced,  the  wall  is  relatively 
thick,  the  frog  is  particularly  well  devel- 
oped in  its  branches,  and  therefore  the 
hoof  is  relatively  wide  in  the  region  of 
the  quarters.  The  horn  of  both  mule  and 
ass  is  tough. 

The  shoes  differ  from  those  of  tlie 
horse  in  no  other  respect  than  that  they 
should  be  lighter  and  narrower.  Four 
nail-holes  are  sufficient  for  an  ass'  shoe, 
and  five  to  six  for  a  mule's. 

On  account  of  tlie  hardness  and  touffh-  ^  ™"''''*  ^°°^-  (P'antar  sur- 

'^  face). 

ness  of  the  walls,  we  use  nails  that  are 

short  but  strong  in  the  shank;  nails  with  weak  shanks  are  apt 

to  bend  in  driving. 

2.  The  shoeing  of  oxen  is  essentially  different  from  that 
of  horses,  because  the  foot  of  the  ox  is  cloven  (split),  the  long 
pastern,  short  pastern,  and  hoof-bone  are  double,  so  that,  in- 
stead of  one  hoof  or  claw,  there  are  two  upon  each  foot,  dis- 
tinguished as  outer  and  inner.     Each  claw  consists  of  wall, 

207 


208  HORSESHOEING. 

sole,  and  bulbs;  the  frog  is  absent.  The  wall  is  considerably 
thinner  than  that  of  the  horse's  hoof,  the  sole  is  thin,  and  the 
bulbs  are  low.  Eor  these  reasons  the  shoe  designed  for  a 
claw  must  be  thin,  but  wide. 

The  holes  must  be  punched  fine  and  the  nails  be  quite 
(short  and  strong.  On  each  shoe  a  long  tongue  should  be  made 
on  the  inner  edge  near  the  toe,  and  so  directed  that  it  can  be 
turned  upward  and  outward  to  embrace  the  toe  of  the  claw. 

Fig.  226. 


A  small  clip  raised  on  the  outer  toe  of  each  shoe  will  increase 
its  stability.  In  some  parts  of  Saxony  the  shoes  are  so  made 
that  the  tongue  of  each  shoe  begins  in  the  rear  third  of  its 
inner  edge  and  runs  forward,  upward,  and  outward,  closely 
embracing  the  wall  of  the  toe.  The  smaller  clip  is  drawn  up 
on  the  outer  edge  of  the  shoe  close  to  the  toe.  These  shoes 
are  more  difficult  to  make,  but  when  applied  sit  more  firmly 
and  remain  fast  longer  than  all  others.  Machine-made  ox 
shoes  (Fig.  227)  have  no  clip  at  the  inner  toe,  and  are  fre- 


HORSESHOEING. 


209 


quently  pulled  and  lost.  For  this  reason  they  are  inferior  to 
hand-made  shoes.  An  undivided  'shoe  (the  so-called  "  closed 
claw-shoe  ")  is  unsuitable  for  oxen,  because  it  deprives  both 
claws  of  their  natural,  free  movements.  However,  such  a  shoe 
is  of  advantage  for  heavy  draft  over  hard  and  very  rough 
roads,  because  it  lessens  the  liability  of  the  fetlock  and  coronai^ 
joints  and  the  cleft  of  the  claws  to  strains. 

Great  difficulty  is  often  encountered  in  holding  the  feet 
during  the  operation  of  shoeing.  It  is  necessary  to  fasten  the 
head  securely  against  a  tree,  -pio   227 

post,  or  wall.  A  front  foot 
may  be  raised  and  held  by 
passing  a  slip-noose  in  the 
end  of  a  rope  or  side-line 
around  the  fetlock  and  carry- 
ing the  line  over  the  withers 
to  the  opposite  side,  where  it 
is  held  by  an  assistant.  A 
hind  limb  may  be  controlled 
by  passing  a  round  pole  in 
front  of  the  hock  of  the  leg 
to  be  raised,  and,  with  a  man 
at  each  end  of  the  pole,  carry- 
ing the  limb  backward  and 
upward,  in  which  position  it 
is  held ;  or  the  limb  may  be  bent  and  controlled  by  tightening  a 
twitch  or  tourniquet  upon  the  leg  just  above  the  hock  (Fig. 
228).  Oxen  that  continue  to  resist  may  sometimes  be  quieted 
by  light  blows  of  a  short  stick  upon  the  base  of  the  horns.  In 
parts  of  the  country  where  many  oxen  are  shod  stocks  are  in 
common  use. 

Very  satisfactory  stocks  have  been  designed  by  Gutenaecker, 
of  Munich  (Fig.  229).     The  four  comer-posts  (a,  a,  h,  h)  are 
eight  inches  square  and  eight  feet  long,  of  which  three  feet 
14 


Pair  of  machine  made  ox  shoes,  viewed  from 
the  ground-surface  and  in  profile;  a,  toe-calk;  b, 
heel-calks. 


210  HORSESHOEING. 

four  inches  are  solidly  implanted  in  the  ground.  They  are 
united  bj  side-  and  cross-bars  {c,  c,  d).  In  front  of  the  comer- 
posts  {a,  a)  and  in  the  middle  line  stands  a  head-post  (e)  of 
the  same  dimensions  as  the  corner-posts,  provided  with  a  slot 
four  inches  wide  and  twenty  inches  long  beginning  three  feet 
from  the  ground.  In  this  slot  is  a  pulley- wheel  (i),  and  below 
it  a  windlass  {h)  for  winding  up  the  rope  which  is  tied  around 
the  base  of  the  animal's  horns.  The  comer-posts  are  pro\aded 
with   a   slot    (n)    three   inches   wide    and  three   inches   deep, 

Fig.  228. 


Hind  foot  raised  by  means  of  a  round  pole. 

within  which  are  placed  two  movable  side-bars  {o,  p),  which 
can  be  set  at  desired  heights  and  fastened  by  iron  pins.  Be- 
tween the  front  and  rear  oomer-posts  of  the  right-hand  side  is 
an  eight-sided  roller  with  a  ratchet  and  click  at  one  end,  and 
having  on  one  of  the  sides  six  iron  hooks,  to  which  a  girth  is 
attached.  On  the  opposite  side  of  the  stocks,  at  the  same 
height,  is  a  stationary  bar  (f)  with  six  hooks  (g,  g)  on  the 
outer  side.  The  belly  girth  is  six  feet  long,  six  inches  wide, 
and  terminates  at  both  ends  in  several  strong  cords  two  feet 


HORSESHOEING. 


211 


four  inches  long  with  iron  rings  at  their  ends.     Between  the 
front  comer-posts  are  a  neck-yoke  (h)  and  a  breast-bar  which 


slide  in  the  slots  (m)  and  may  be  fixed  at  desired  heights  by 
iron  pins.     On  the  rear  face  of  each  rear  corner-post  is  an  iron 


212  HORSESHOEING. 

bracket  (s)  one  foot  and  a  half  long,  with  a  ring  (t)  six  inches 
in  diameter,  through  which  passes  a  round  pole  padded  in  the 
middle  and  kept  in  place  by  two  iron  pins.  Above  each  bracket 
is  a  hook  (w)  to  which  the  end  of  the  breeching  attaches. 

Before  an  animal  is  brought  into  the  stocks  the  neck-yoke 
is  raised,  the  breast-bar  lowered,  and  the  girth  left  hanging 
from  the  hooks  on  the  stationary  bar.  The  ox  is  then  led  into 
the  stocks  and  the  rope  which  is  tied  around  the  balse  of  the 
horns  is  carried  over  the  pulley  (i) ,  fastened  to  the  hook  on  the 
roller  (k),  and  wound  up  till  the  head  is  tight  against  the  head- 
post.  The  yoke  and  breast-bar  are  then  placed  in  position  and 
fastened,  the  breeching  hung  on  the  hooks  (u),  and  the  belly 
girth  attached  to  the  hooks  on  the  roller,  so  that,  if  need  be,  it 
can  be  shortened  till  it  bears  the  animal's  entire  weight. 

To  control  a  front  foot  a  slip  noose  is  placed  about  the  fet- 
lock and  the  limb  is  raised  and  lashed  to  the  side-bar,  the  rope 
passing  finally  to  the  hook  (r).  To  control  a  hind  foot  a  slip 
noose  is  placed  about  the  fetlock,  the  foot  carried  upward 
and  backward  over  the  rear  cross-bar,  and,  wdth  the  front  sur- 
face of  the  fetlock-joint  resting  against  the  padding  of  the 
bar,  the  limb  is  firmly  'secured  by  wrapping  the  line  several 
times  about  the  limb  and  bar. 

When  no  stocks  are  at  hand,  we  may  use  an  ordinary  farm 
wagon  or  a  truck  wagon.  Tie  the  ox  with  his  head  forward 
between  the  front  and  hind  wheels.  Fasten  the  large  end  of  a 
binding  pole  to  the  spokes  of  the  front  wheel  and  let  it  rest  on 
the  hub.  Swing  the  pole  close .  to  the  ox  and  induce  him  to 
step  over  it  with  one  hind  leg,  then  raise  the  rear  end  of  the 
pole,  and  with  it  the  leg  and  so  much  of  the  animal's  hind 
quarters  that  the  inner  hind  leg  standing  close  to  the  wagon 
re'sts  but  lightly  upon  the  ground.  The  binding  pole  may  then 
be  slung  with  a  rope  from  the  rack  of  the  wagon  or  other 
stationary  object  and  the  outer  limb  held  in  the  usual  manner. 
By  following  this  method  a  sheer  with  one  assistant  can  easily 
and  safely  control  the  most  refractory  oxen. 


INDEX 


Apprentice,  14 
Arteries,  41 
Articulations,  21 

Balanced  hoof,  101 

Balling  with  snow,  149 

Bar-shoe,  uses  of,  164 

Bare  foot,  preparing  the  hoof,  102 

Bars,  51 

dressing,  99 
Base-narrow  position,  63,  68 
Base-wide  position,  63,  68 
Beaked  shoe,  184 
Bear-foot,  72 

Bearing  surface  of  shoes,  117,  127 
Blood-vessels,  41 
Bow-legged  position,  64 
Buttress,  100 

Calf-kneed,  66 
Calk  wound,  173 
Camped  behind,  68 

in  front,  66 
Cannon  bone,  20,  21 
Carpus,  20 
Cartilages,  lateral,  39 
Cast  iron,  103 

shoes,  132 
Chadwick  spring,  187 
Clefts,  203 
Clinch  cutter,  97 
Clinching,  131 
CUps,  111 

Close  naihng,  biu-ning,  166 
Contracted  hoof,  185 

sole,  190 
Com,  chronic,  175 

dry,  174 

suppurating,  174 


Corns,  174 

treatment,  176 
Coronary  band,  47 

joint,  31 

Ugaments,  31 
Cover-plate  shoe,  173 
Cow-hocked,  68 
Cracks,  195 

coronary  and  bar,  196,  202 

plantar,  202 
Crest,  semilunar,  27 
Crooked  hoof,  192 
Cross-firing,  140 

Defay's  shoe,  187 
Diseases  of  hoof,  165 
Dressing  the  hoof,  98 
Driving  the  shoe,  130 
Drop-forged  shoes,  132 
Dropped  sole,  178,  182,  183 

Elastic  parts  of  foot,  38 
Examination  before  shoeing,  90 

Feet,  forms  of,  69 

Femur,  20 

Fetlock,  hgaments  of,  29 

joint,  28 
Fiber  shoes,  134 
Fibula,  20 
Flat  hoof,  182 
Fleshy  frog,  49 

sole,  49 

wall,  48 
Fhght  of  hoofs,  72,  75 
Foot,  articulations  of,  28 

bones  of,  24 
Foot-axis,  70 

relation  to  sole,  100 

straight  and  broken,  101 
213 


214 


INDEX 


Forging,  138 
Founder,  177 

dressing  hoof,  179 

shoeing,  180 
Frog,  57 

dressing,  99 
Front  shoe,  making,  105 
Frost-nails,  146 
Full  hoof,  183 
Fullering,  109 

hammer,  104 

Gathered  nail,  170 

Hair-skin,  44 

Head,  bones  of,  17 

Heavy  draught  horses,  shoeing,  125 

Heel-calks,  112 

always  sharp,  154 
Heels,  inflammation  of,  176 
Hind  shoe,  making,  107 
Hock,  21 
Hollow  wall,  205 
Hoof,  50 

benefits  of  movements  within,  89 

crooked,  84 

growth  of,  82 

healthy,  81 

irregular  growth,  83 

knife,  98 

ointments,  159,  160 

physiological  movements  of,  86 

wear  against  shoe,  86 

wear  of,  82 
Hoof-skin,  45 
Hoofs,  care  of  unshod,  157 
Hoofs,  forms  of,  77,  80 

of  colts,  care  of,  157 
Horn,  minute  structure  of,  58 

quahties  of,  59 

tumor,  181     ' 
Horseshoeing,  object  of,  13 

schools,  15 


Horseshoer,  requisites  of,  14 
Humerus,  19 
Hunters,  shoeing,  123 

Interfering,  142 

Iron  for  horseshoes,  103 

Joints,  free,  hinge,  and  pivot,  22 

Keraphyllocele,  181 
Knee-sprung,  67 

Laminitis,  177 

Leather  sole,  164 

Ligaments,  21 

Limbs,  standing  positions,  62 

Loose  wall,  204 

Low-jointed,  66 

Mucous  bursse,  35 
Mule  shoes,  207 
Muscles,  22 

Nail  holes,  110 
Nailing,  166 

causes  of,  167 

examination  and  treatment,  167, 
168 
Nails,  128 
Navicular  bone,  28 
Nerves,  44 
Nippers,  99 
Normal  position,  62,  64,  67,  69 

Os  pedis,  26 

Ox  shoes,  208 

Oxen,  securing  feet,  209 

Pacers,  shoeing,  124 
Pads,  rubber,  135 
Pastern,  long,  25 

short,  26 
Patella,  20 
Pedal  joint,  31 

ligaments,  31 


INDEX 


215 


Peg-calks,  150 

Peg  toe-calks,  152 

Pelvis,  19 

Periople,  53 

Perioplic  band,  47 

Periosteum,  21 

Pigeon-toed  position,  64 

Pincers,  97 

Plantar  cushion,  40 

Pododerm,  45 

Pododermatitis,  symptoms  of,  161 

treatment  of,  163 
Podophyllous  tissue,  48 
Podometer,  105 
Pricking,  direct  nailing,  166 
Pritchel,  105 

Protective  organs  of  foot,  44 
Punch,  105 

Quarter  crack,  200 
Quarters,  contraction  of,  186 

Radius,  20 

Raising  feet  in  shoeing,  92 

Removing  shoes,  97 

Rolled  toe,  118 

Rope  shoes,  133 

Rubber  shoes,  134 

Runners,  123 

Saddle  horses,  shoeing,  122 

Scapula,  19 

Screw  heel-calks,  148 

Seedy  toe,  178 

Sesamoid  bones,  25 
ligaments,  29-31 

Sharp  toe-  and  heel-calks,  146 

Shod  hoofs,  care  of,  159 

Shoe,  choosing  the,  116 

for  acute-angled  hoof,  114,  120 
for  base-narrow  hoof,  114,  121 
for  base-wide  hoof,  114,  121 
for  narrow  hoof,  115,  121 
for  regular  hoof,  114,  120 


Shoe,  for  stumpy  hoof,  114,  120 

for  wide  hoof,  115,  121 

parts  of,  103 

wear  of,  84 

weight  of,  116 
Shoeing  defective  hoofs,  161 
Shoes,  fittmg,  118 

general  properties,  107 

machine,  132 

making,  103,  105 

nailing,  128 

removing  old,  97 

shaping  and  fitting,  117,  120 

special  properties,  114 
Sickle-hock,  68 
Side-bone,  194 
Sole,  55 

contraction  of,  189 
Spinal  column,  17 
Splint-bones,  20 

shoe,  172 
Standing  under,  66 
Station  of  rest,  65 
Steel,  103 
Stocks,  for  horses,  95 

for  oxen,  209 
Stifle  joint,  20 
Stilt-foot,  184 
Street-nail,  170 
Stride,  height  of,  75 

length  of,  75 
Stumpy  hoof,  184 
Suspensory  ligament,  29 

altering  tension  of,  36-38 
Synovia,  21 

Tendon,  anterior  extensor,  32 

deep  flexor,  33 

lateral  extensor,  32 

sheaths,  35 

superficial  flexor,  33 
Tendons,  24 
Tension  of  tendon,  altering,  36 


216 


INDEX 


Thorax,  18 

Thrush,  206 

Tibia,  20 

Toe-  and  heel-calks,  112 

Toe-calk,  blunt,  113 

haK-sharp,  113 

sharp,  112 
Toe-crack,  197 
Tools  for  making  shoes,  104 
Tread,  173 

Trotters,  shoeing,  124 
Trunk,  17 
Tubbing  and  stopping,  159 

Ulna,  20 

Vachette  hook,  199 


Veins,  43 
Velvety  frog,  49 
sole,  49 

Wall,  51 

dressing,  99 

height  of,  52 

leafy  layer,  53 

protective  layer,  53 

slant  of,  52 

thickness  of,  53 
Weight,  influence  of,  75 
Weights,  side  and  toe,  77 
White  hne.  56 
Wide  hoofs,  contraction  of. 
Wry  hoof,  193 


^  JUN  82 

Ig^      N.  MANCHESTER, 


